Wireless

WAN
Technolog
y

1
 Microwave Networking
Technologies

Microwave systems deliver higher transmission rates

than radio based system do, but because the
frequencies are so high, transmitters and receivers
must share a common clear line of sight.
Microwave communications are more expensive than
radio systems.
Two types of microwave systems: Terrestrial - Satellite
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 Terrestrial Microwave
 Terrestrial microwave transmissions are sent between
two microwave stations on the earth (earth station).
 It is the most common form of long-distance
communication.
 Terrestrial microwave systems operate in the low-
gigahertz range
 Use a parabolic dish to focus a narrow beam onto a
receiver antenna 3
 Satellite Microwave
A communication satellite can be seen as a
microwave repeater in space.
It is equipped with a number of devices called
transponders, each of which listens to some
portion of the electromagnetic spectrum,
amplifies an incoming signal (the uplink), and re-
broadcasts it at another frequency (the downlink).
The antenna used to receive signals from these
satellites can thus be mounted in a fixed position.

5
NETWORK INTERFACE CARD
 Network Interface Card
• A network interface card (NIC) is a circuit board or
card that is installed in a computer so that it can
be connected to a network.

• A network interface card provides the computer

with a dedicated, full-time connection to a
network

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 Network Interface Card Tasks
• For any computer, a network interface card (NIC) performs
two crucial tasks
– Establishes and manages the computer’s network
connection
– Translates digital computer data into signals
(appropriate for the networking medium) for outgoing
messages, and translates signals into digital computer
data for incoming messages

• NIC establishes a link between a computer and a network, and

then manages that link
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 Network Interface Card Tasks
• To redistribute serial data to parallel lines (and vice versa), one of
the most important components on a NIC is memory, which acts as a
buffer.
• Creates, sends, and receives frames
– Frame: fundamental unit of data for network transmission and
reception
• Deals with frame-level errors and incomplete or unintelligible frame
structures
• Manages access to medium
• Acts as gatekeeper (permits inbound communications aimed only at its
computer (or broadcast) to pass through NIC and on to CPU)
– Each card has a unique MAC address in ROM
– Promiscuous mode disables gatekeeper functions
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 Promiscuous mode
• This mode turns off the gatekeeper
functions and enables the NIC to process all
frames it sees.
• This mode is used by software called a
protocol analyzer or packet sniffer that
captures frames and displays their contents
for the purposes of troubleshooting and
learning.
11
Network Protocols : TCP/IP
 OSI
Mode
l

13
 Introduction
• Whether it’s wired or wireless, most data communications
today happens by way of packets of information travelling over
one or more networks. But before these networks can work
together, though, they must use a common protocol, or a set
of rules for transmitting and receiving these packets of data.
• Many protocols have been developed. One of the most widely
used is the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP).
• Also, a generic protocol model used in describing network
communications known as the Open System Interconnection
(OSI) model is useful for comparing and contrasting different
protocols.
 OSI Model

• the OSI model is a standard of the International

Organization for Standardization (ISO).
• Open System Interconnection (OSI) is a general-
purpose paradigm for discussing or describing
how computers communicate with one another
over a network.
• Its seven-layered approach to data transmission
divides the many operations up into specific
related groups of actions at each layer
 OSI Model
• During transmission, each layer adds a header to the data
that directs and identifies the packet using different
protocols. This process is called encapsulation.
• The header and data together form the data packet for the
next layer that, in turn, adds its header and so on. The
combined encapsulated packet is then transmitted and
received.
• The receiving computer reverses the process, de-
encapsulating the data at each layer with the header
information directing the operations. Then, the application
finally uses the data.
• The process is continued until all data is transmitted and
received.
 TCP/IP protocol

• The Internet protocol suite is the computer networking

model and set of communications protocols used on
the Internet and similar computer networks.
• TCP/IP also is a layered protocol but does not use all of
the OSI layers, though the layers are equivalent in
operation and function.
• It is commonly known as TCP/IP, because its most
important protocols, the Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP) were the first
networking protocols defined during its development.
TCP/IP
protoco
l

20
 TCP/IP protocol

• The Internet protocol suite is the conceptual

model and set of communications protocols
used on the Internet and similar
computer networks. It is commonly known as
TCP/IP because the foundational protocols in
the suite are the
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the
Internet Protocol (IP).
Internet Layer
 Application Layer
• The application layer is the highest abstraction layer of the TCP/IP
model that provides the interfaces and protocols needed by the
users. It combines the functionalities of the session layer, the
presentation layer and the application layer of the OSI model.

The functions of the application layer are:

• It facilitates the user to use the services of the network.
• It is used to develop network-based applications.
• It provides user services like user login, naming network
devices, formatting messages, and e-mails, transfer of files
etc.
• It is also concerned with error handling and recovery of the
message as a whole.
 Application Layer
This layer uses a number of protocols, the main among which are as follows:

• Hyper Text Transfer Protocol, HTTP: It is the underlying protocol for

world wide web. It defines how hypermedia messages are formatted
and transmitted.
• File Transfer Protocol, FTP: It is a client-server based protocol for
transfer of files between client and server over the network.
• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, SMTP: It lays down the rules and
semantics for sending and receiving electronic mails (e-mails).
• Domain Name System, DNS: It is a naming system for devices in
networks. It provides services for translating domain names to IP
addresses.
• Simple Network Management Protocol, SNMP: It is for managing,
monitoring the network and for organizing information about the
networked devices.
 Transport Layer
• The transport layer is responsible for error-free, end-to-end
delivery of data from the source host to the destination
host. It corresponds to the transport layer of the OSI model.

The functions of the transport layer are:

• It facilitates the communicating hosts to carry on a
conversation.
• It provides an interface for the users to the underlying
network.
• It can provide for a reliable connection. It can also carry
out error checking, flow control, and verification.
 Transport Layer
The protocols used in this layer are:
• Transmission Control Protocol, TCP: It is a reliable connection-oriented
protocol that transmits data from the source to the destination machine
without any error. A connection is established between the peer entities prior
to transmission. At the sending host, TCP divides an incoming byte stream
into segments and assigns a separate sequence number to each segment. At
the receiving host, TCP reorders the segments and sends an acknowledgment
to the sender for correct receipt of segments. TCP also manages flow control
so that a fast sender does not overwhelm a slow receiver.

• User Datagram Protocol, UDP: It is a message-oriented protocol that provides

a simple unreliable, connectionless, unacknowledged service. It is suitable for
applications that do not require TCP’s sequencing, error control or flow
control. It is used for transmitting a small amount of data where the speed of
delivery is more important than the accuracy of delivery.
 Transport Layer
Protecting Data with a Checksum
• To protect data integrity, TCP and UDP
provide a checksum similar to the CRC in the
Network access layer, but the CRC isn’t always
a perfect mechanism for ensuring that data
wasn’t corrupted on the way to its
destination.
 Internetwork / Internet Layer
• The Internet layer is responsible for logical transmission of
data packets over the internet. It can be compared to the
network layer of the OSI model.

The main functions of the internet layer are:

• It transmits data packets to the link layer.
• It routes each of the data packets independently from
the source to the destination, using the optimal route.
• It reassembles the out-of-order packets when they reach
the destination.
• It handles the error in transmission of data packets and
fragmentation of data packets.
 Internetwork / Internet Layer
The most common protocols used in this layer are:
• Internet Protocol, IP: It is a connectionless and
unreliable protocol that provides a best effort delivery
service. It transports data packets called datagrams that
travel over different routes across multiple nodes.
• Address Resolution Protocol, ARP: This protocol maps
the logical address or the Internet address of a host to
its physical address, as printed in the network interface
card.
• Internet Control Message Protocol, ICMP: It monitors
sending the queries as well as the error messages.
 Network access Layer
• The network access layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP
model and is concerned with the physical transmission of
data. It is also called a network interface layer or link layer.
It can be considered as the combination of physical layer
and data link layer of the OSI model.
The functions of this layer are:
• It defines how bits are to be encoded into optical or
electrical pulses.
• It states the transmission mode, i.e. simplex, half duplex or
full duplex
• It states the topology of the network, i.e. bus, star, ring etc.
 Network access Layer
The most common protocols that this layer
supports are:
• Ethernet
• Frame Relay
• Token Ring