INTRODUCTION TO

STATISTICAL METHODS IN
RESEARCH
• Statistics is the study and manipulation of data,
including ways to gather, review, analyze, and
draw conclusions from data.
• Statistics help researchers gather, understand,
and make sense of data. This is important in all
kinds of research, whether it’s studying new
medicines, understanding social trends, or
testing new technologies.
• Statistics provide the methods needed to handle
large amounts of information and draw
meaningful conclusions.
 When have you
used statistics?
What impact did it
have on you after
 THE TWO MAJOR AREAS OF
STATISTICS ARE DESCRIPTIVE
AND INFERENTIAL STATISTICS.
Descriptive statistics are about taking a large
amount of data and summarizing it in a simple way.
This can include calculating averages (like the
mean), finding out how much the data varies (like
standard deviation), or creating charts and graphs
to show patterns.

Example: If you collected test scores from a class,

descriptive statistics would help you find the
average score, see how scores are spread out, and
Inferential statistics involve using a sample (a
smaller group) to make guesses or predictions
about a larger group. This includes testing
hypotheses to see if the results are likely to be true
for the whole population.

Example: If you wanted to know the average height

of all the students in a school but only measured a
few, inferential statistics would help you estimate
the average height for the entire school based on
TYPES OF DATA AND LEVELS
OF MEASUREMENT
TYPES OF DATA
Qualitative vs. Quantitative:
• Qualitative Data: This type of data is descriptive
and involves categories or qualities. It’s not
about numbers, but rather characteristics or
labels.
• Examples:
⚬ Colors: Red, blue, green.
⚬ Types of Animals: Cats, dogs, birds.
⚬ Opinions: Happy, sad, excited.
Qualitative vs. Quantitative:
• Quantitative Data: This type of data is
numerical and involves counts or
measurements. It can be used to do calculations
and make comparisons.
• Examples:
⚬ Age: 25 years, 40 years.
⚬ Height: 5 feet 6 inches, 6 feet.
⚬ Number of Students: 30 students, 45
students.
Discrete vs. Continuous:
• Discrete Data: Discrete data consists of distinct,
separate values that can be counted. It usually
involves whole numbers and cannot be divided
further.
• Examples:
⚬ Number of Books: 3 books, 7 books.
⚬ Number of Cars: 1 car, 4 cars.
⚬ Students in a Class: 20 students, 25
students.
Discrete vs. Continuous:
• Continuous Data: Continuous data can take on
any value within a range and can be measured
with precision. It often involves decimals or
fractions.
• Examples:
⚬ Height: 5.6 feet, 5.75 feet.
⚬ Weight: 150.5 pounds, 160.2 pounds.
⚬ Temperature: 72.5°F, 98.6°F.
1. The number of chairs in a classroom.
2. The height of a tree in meters.
3. The number of cars in a parking lot.
4. The temperature of the air in degrees
Celsius.
5. The number of apples in a basket.
6. The time taken to finish a test in minutes.
7. The number of pages in a book.
8. The weight of a bag of flour in kilograms.
9. The number of tickets sold for a concert.
10.The distance traveled in a car in kilometers.
LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
1. Nominal
• Nominal data is used for labeling or naming
categories without any order or ranking. The
categories are just different from each other.
• Examples:
⚬ Gender: Male, Female.
⚬ Race: Asian, Caucasian, African American.
⚬ Types of Fruits: Apple, Orange, Banana.
2. Ordinal
• Ordinal data involves categories that have a
specific order or ranking, but the differences
between the ranks are not consistent or
measurable.
• Examples:
⚬ Rankings: 1st place, 2nd place, 3rd place in
a race.
⚬ Satisfaction Levels: Very Unsatisfied,
Unsatisfied, Neutral, Satisfied, Very Satisfied.
3. Interval
• Interval data involves numeric scales where the
differences between values are consistent, but
there is no true zero point. This means you can
add and subtract values, but you can’t make
meaningful statements about ratios.
• Examples:
⚬ Temperature in Celsius: 10°C, 20°C
⚬ IQ Scores: 100, 110
4. Ratio
• Ratio data is similar to interval data but has a
true zero point. This allows for a full range of
mathematical operations, including meaningful
ratios (e.g., twice as much).
• Examples:
⚬ Height: 150 cm, 180 cm
⚬ Weight: 50 kg, 70 kg
⚬ Distance: 5 miles, 10 miles
1. Colors of shirts in a wardrobe.
2. Ranks in a race (1st, 2nd, 3rd).
3. Temperature in Fahrenheit.
4. Height of students in centimeters.
5. Types of fruits (apple, orange, banana).
6. Levels of satisfaction (unsatisfied, neutral,
satisfied).
7. Year of birth (e.g., 1990, 2000).
8. Weight of packages in kilograms.
9. Names of cities in a country.
10.Scores on a test from 0 to 100.
POPULATION VS SAMPLE
1. Population: A population is the entire group that
you want to study or make conclusions about. It
includes all possible subjects or items that fit
certain criteria.
• Examples:
⚬ In a Study of All High School Students: The
population would be every high school
student in a given country.
⚬ For a Survey on Company Employees: The
population would include every employee
2. Sample: A sample is a smaller group selected from
the population. This smaller group is used to represent
the whole population in a study. Sampling is done
because studying the entire population can be
impractical or too costly.
• Examples:
⚬ In a Study of High School Students: Instead of
surveying every student, you might select 500
students from different schools to represent the
entire population.
⚬ For a Company Survey: You might choose 100
PARAMETERS VS STATISTICS
1. Parameters: Parameters are numerical values
that describe characteristics of the entire
population. They are the true values that
researchers aim to estimate but are often difficult
to measure directly.
• Examples:
⚬ Population Mean: The average income of all
adults in a city.
⚬ Population Proportion: The percentage of
people in a country who own a car.
2. Statistics: Statistics are numerical values that
describe characteristics of a sample. They are used
to estimate parameters because it’s often not
feasible to measure the entire population.
• Examples:
⚬ Sample Mean: The average income
calculated from a survey of 100 adults in the
city.
⚬ Sample Proportion: The percentage of car
owners found in the sample of 100 people.
VARIABLE VS DATA
1. A variable is a characteristic or attribute that
can take on different values. It represents what you
are measuring or observing in a study.
• Examples:
o Age: A variable that can have different values
like 10, 20, 30, etc.
o Height: A variable that can be measured in
different units, such as centimeters or inches.
o Gender: A variable that can have values like
male, female, or non-binary.
2. Data are the actual values or measurements
collected for a variable. They represent the
observations or results related to the variable in a
study.
• Examples:
o Age Data: 25, 30, 40 (values collected for the
variable "age").
o Height Data: 150 cm, 160 cm, 175 cm (values
collected for the variable "height").
o Gender Data: Female, Male, Female (actual
responses for the variable "gender").
• STATISTICS • INTERVAL
• DESCRIPTIVE • RATIO
STATISTICS • POPULATION
• INFERENTIAL • SAMPLE
STATISTICS • PARAMETER
• QUALITATIVE DATA • STATISTIC
• QUANTITATIVE DATA • DATA
• DISCRETE DATA • VARIABLE
• CONTINUOUS DATA
• NOMINAL