THE SKELETAL AND MUSCULAR SYSTEM

The skeleton and its functions.

Skeleton refers to the internal framework of the body made
up of 206 bones.

Bone is a hard, whitish, living tissue that makes up the

skeleton; bones are lightweight but strong and perform many
functions.
 Functions of the skeleton
 Shape and support. The skeleton provides shape and support for the body. It forms the
frame to which our muscles can attach and in which our organs can sit. E.g. the backbone
enables us to stay upright.

 Muscle attachment for movement. Muscles are attached to the skeleton. Movement
occurs when muscles contract and pull-on bones making them move about a joint. E.g.
the biceps muscle connects the shoulder and elbow and helps with lifting.

 Protection for vital organs. Internal organs are soft, delicate and easily damaged. These
vital organs are protected by the skeleton. E.g. the cranium protects the brain, the ribs
help protect the heart and lungs.

 Blood production. The centre of some large bones contains red bone marrow, which
creates red blood cells. E.g. the pelvis and femur are both important in blood production.
 Classification of bones.
1. Long bones. These act as lever to produce a large range of movement. E.g.
Femur, tibia, fibula, humerus, ulna, radius, phalanges, clavicle.

2. Short bones. They are approximately as wide as they are long. Their
function is to provide stability and support, with little movement. E.g.
carpals, tarsals.

3. Flat bones. These provide a large surface area for muscles to attach to.
They also provide protection for organs. E.g. pelvis, cranium, scapula.
Bones in the human body serve several important functions:

1. Support: Bones provide a framework that supports the body and holds it upright. They also provide structure
to the body's organs and tissues.

2. Protection: Bones protect vital organs such as the brain, heart, and lungs. For example, the skull protects the
brain, and the rib cage protects the heart and lungs.

3. Movement: Bones, along with muscles, allow for movement. Muscles attach to bones via tendons, and when
muscles contract, they pull on the bones, causing movement.

4. Storage: Bones store minerals such as calcium and phosphorus, which are important for bone strength and
other bodily functions. Bone marrow, found inside bones, also stores fat and is the site of blood cell production.

5. Blood cell production: Bone marrow produces red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets through a
process called hematopoiesis.

6. Endocrine regulation: Bones produce hormones that help regulate various bodily functions, such as growth
and energy metabolism. For example, osteocalcin, a hormone produced by bones, helps regulate blood sugar
and fat deposition.
 Joint types, structure and function.
A joint is a point in the body where two or more bones are joined in a way that permits movement.
Types of joints.
1. Fixed or immoveable joints. (Fibrous joints)
These bones cannot move at all and are found in the skull (cranium).
These joints are also known as ‘fibrous joints’ as the bones are joined via fibrous connective tissue.
2 Slightly moveable joints. (Cartilaginous joints)
The bones in these joints can move a small amount as they are linked together by ligaments and cartilage
(which absorbs the movement).
They are found in the vertebral column (spine) and the ribs.3Freely moveable joints (synovial joints)
Synovial joints have a greater amount of movement and include the elbow, shoulder, knee and hip.
These joints have a number of parts, illustrated in the diagram and described in the table below.
Structure of the synovial joint.
 Functions of the parts
 Synovial membrane. Surrounds the joint capsule with a synovial fluid.
 Synovial fluid. Acts a lubricant that reduces friction in the joint: allows
for smoother movement and reduces wear and tear.
 Joint capsule. The structure that surrounds and protects the joint,
holding the bones together; made up of an outer fibrous membrane and
an inner synovial membrane.
 Cartilage. A strong but flexible material found at the end of the bones
that acts as a cushion to stop bones knocking together.
 Tendon. A tough band of fibrous tissue that connects muscle to bone
and enables joints to withstand tension.
 Types of synovial joints.
1. Ball and socket joints. These are found at the shoulders and hips. They provide a large
range of movement in every direction. One bone has a bulge or ball that fits into a
socket in the other bone.
Ball and socket joints allow actions such as an overhead clear in badminton or bowling
in cricket.
2. Hinge joint. These are located in the elbow and the knee and are like the hinges on a
door, allowing movement in one direction. Your elbows and knees allow you to bend or
straighten your arms and legs when performing a jump shot in basketball.
Note:
Due to the wider range of movement and complexity, a ball and socket joint is less stable
than a hinge joint, which moves in just one direction. A ball and socket joint is therefore
less stable and more prone to injury than a hinge joint.
Generally speaking, the following can be said to be true:
More motion = less stability = more wear and tear = more susceptibility to injury.
 Movement at joints.
Movement is made possible by the various joints we have in our bodies.
The joints in the upper part of the body are focused on movements that
help us function (for example, using our arms to feed ourselves), while
joints in the lower part are more focused on stability to ensure we stay
balanced.

There are eight different kinds of movement that can happen at joints. We
use these joint movements to move the parts of our body and perform
physical activities. These eight movements can be grouped into four pairs,
as the movements are linked, one often being the reverse of the other.
•Flexion / extension
Flexion involves bending a part of the body: for example, bending your arm
at the elbow.

Extension means straightening a part of the body: for example, straightening

your arm at the elbow.
•Abduction / adduction
Abduction is a sideways movement away from the centre of the body: for example,
lifting your arm from your side.
Adduction is a sideways movement towards the centre of the body.
 •Rotation and circumduction
Rotation is a turning point around an imaginary line. Turning your head from left to right is
one example, with the imaginary line running vertically through your skull.

When you turn your leg to point your feet and toes out to the side, you are rotating your leg.
Circumduction occurs when the end of a bone moves in a circle. An example is swinging your
arms in a circle at your shoulder.
•Plantar flexion / dorsiflexion
These are two types of movement in the ankle and foot.
Plantar flexion is the movement in the ankle joint that points the foot away from the leg: for example,
when you plant your foot to the ground whilst running.

Dorsiflexion is the movement in the ankle where the toes are brought closer to the shin: for example,
when you lift your foot off the ground whilst running.
NB
Joints allow and provide a range of different movements. For example,
the shoulder can perform flexion, extension, adduction, abduction and
rotation, all of which are essential in different sports and allow the
performer to compete in their sport to the highest level.