Computer application in pharmacy

Presented by:
Doma Tamang
 Information system
(UNIT I)

Information systems (IS) are formal, sociotechnical,

organizational systems designed to collect, process,
store, and distribute information.
In a sociotechnical perspective, information systems
are composed by four components: task, people,
structure (or roles), and technology.
The six components that must come together in
order to produce an information
1. Hardware: The term hardware refers to machinery. This category
includes
the computer itself, which is often referred to as the central processing unit
(CPU), and all of its support equipment. Among the support, equipment are
input and output devices, storage devices and communications devices.
2. Software: The term software refers to computer programs and the
manuals (if any) that support them. Computer programs are machine-
readable instructions that direct the circuitry within the hardware parts of
the system to function in ways that produce useful information from data.
Programs are generally stored on some input/output medium, often a disk
or tape.
3. Data: Data are facts that are used by programs to produce useful
information. Like programs, data are generally stored in machine readable
form on disk or tape until the computer needs them.
4. Procedures: Procedures are the policies that govern the
operation of a computer system. “Procedures are to people what
software is to hardware” is a common analogy that is used to
illustrate the role of procedures in a system.
5. People: Every system needs people if it is to be useful. Often the
most overlooked element of the system are the people, probably
the component that most influence the success or failure of
information systems. This includes
“not only the users, but those who operate and service the
computers, those who maintain the data, and those who support
the network of computers.”
6. Feedback: it is another component of the IS, that defines that an
IS may be provided with a feedback
 Types of information system

• data warehouses
• enterprise resource planning
• enterprise systems
• expert systems
• search engines
• geographic information system
• global information system
• office automation.
 Components Of Information System
An Information system is a combination of hardware
and software and telecommunication networks that
people build to collect, create and distribute useful
data, typically in an organisational, It defines the
flow of information within the system.
The objective of an information system is to provide
appropriate information to the user, to gather the
data, processing of the data and communicate
information to the user of the system.
1. Computer Hardware:
Physical equipment used for input, output and processing.
What hardware to use it depends upon the type and size of
the organisation. It consists of input, an output device,
operating system, processor, and media devices. This also
includes computer peripheral devices.
2. Computer Software:
The programs/ application program used to control and
coordinate the hardware components. It is used for
analysing and processing of the data. These programs
include a set of instruction used for processing
information.
Software is further classified into 2 types:
1. System Software
2. Application Software
3. Databases:
Data are the raw facts and figures that are unorganised that are and later
processed to
generate information. Softwares are used for organising and serving data to
the user, managing physical storage of media and virtual resources. As the
hardware can’t work without software the same as software needs data for
processing. Data are managed using Database management system.
Database software is used for efficient access for required data, and to
manage knowledge bases.
4. Network:
• Networks resources refer to the telecommunication networks like the
intranet,
extranet and the internet.
• These resources facilitate the flow of information in the organisation.
• Networks consists of both the physicals devices such as networks cards,
routers, hubs and cables and software such as operating systems, web
servers, data servers and application servers.
• Telecommunications networks consist of computers, communications
processors, and other devices interconnected by communications media
and
controlled by software.
• Networks include communication media, and Network Support.
5. Human Resources:
It is associated with the manpower required to run and
manage the system. People are the end user of the
information system, end-user use information produced for
their own purpose, the main purpose of the information
system is to benefit the end user.
The end user can be accountants, engineers, salespersons,
customers, clerks, or managers etc. People are also responsible
to develop and operate information systems. They include
systems analysts, computer operators, programmers, and
other clerical IS personnel, and managerial techniques.
 Systems Development Life Cycle
• An effective System Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
should result in a high quality system that meets
customer expectations, reaches completion within
time and cost evaluations, and works effectively
and efficiently in the current and planned
Information Technology infrastructure.
• System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a
conceptual model which includes policies and
procedures for developing or altering systems
throughout their life cycles.
SDLC is used by analysts to develop an information system. SDLC
includes the

following activities –
• requirements
• design
• implementation
• testing
• deployment
• operations
• maintenance
• Phases of SDLC
Systems Development Life Cycle is a systematic
approach which explicitly breaks down the work
into phases that are required to implement
either new or modified Information System.
 Project management
Project management is the application of
processes, methods, skills, knowledge and
experience to achieve specific project objectives
according to the project acceptance criteria
within agreed parameters.
 What is a project?

A project is a unique, transient endeavour, undertaken to achieve

planned objectives,
which could be defined in terms of outputs, outcomes or benefits.
A project is usually deemed to be a success if it achieves the
objectives according to their acceptance criteria, within an agreed
timescale and budget. Time, cost and quality are the building blocks
of every project.
Time: scheduling is a collection of techniques used to develop and
present
schedules that show when work will be performed.
Cost: how are necessary funds acquired and finances managed?
Quality: how will fitness for purpose of the deliverables and
management processes be assured?
The core components of project management are:

• defining the reason why a project is necessary;

• capturing project requirements, specifying quality of the deliverables,
estimating
resources and timescales;
• preparing a business case to justify the investment;
• securing corporate agreement and funding;
• developing and implementing a management plan for the project;
• leading and motivating the project delivery team;
• managing the risks, issues and changes on the project;
• monitoring progress against plan;
• managing the project budget;
• maintaining communications with stakeholders and the project organisation;
• provider management;
• closing the project in a controlled fashion when appropriate
 UNIT-I
DATA FLOW DIAGRAM(DFD)
• A graphically tool, useful for communication with user,
manager, and also personnel.

• Useful for analyzing existing as well as proposed systems.

• Also known as “Bubble chart”.

• It represent the flow of data graphically in an
information system.
• It represent the incoming data flow, outgoing data flow
and stored data flow.
• How the data is processed in a system in term of input
and output.
• A DFD model use no. of notation or symbol to represent
flow of diagram.
 DFD ELEMENTS
1. Source / sinks (External Entities)

• Source -Entity that supplies data to the system.

• Sinks- Entity that receive data from the system.

2. Data Flows
3. Processes or Bubble

4. Data store
• Write
• Reading
 RULES OF DFD

1. Each process should have at least one input and one

output.
2. Each data store should have at least one data flow in and
one data flow out.
3. All process in a DFD go to either another process or
data store .
4. All the external entities must be connected through a
process and entity can provided something to the s/w as
well as the entities can consume some data from the s/w.
 LEVELS OF DFD

1. 0th level DFD:

It is the diagram which provides the entire systems data
flows and processing with a single process(bubble) is
called as context.
2. 1st level DFD:
This is a more detailed version of the previous level that
includes the database and various important units.
 HTML(Unit II)
• HTML is the standard Hyper text markup
language for creating web pages.
• HTML describe the structure of web pages.
• HTML elements are the building blocks of
HTML pages.
• HTML elements are represented by tags.
• HTML tags label pieces of content such as
“heading”, “paragraph”, “table” and so on.
• All HTML documents consist of nested HTML
elements.
• Browsers do not display the HTML tags, but
use them to render the content of the page
 Cascading style sheets(CSS)
• CSS is used to define styles for your web
pages, including the design, layout and
variations in the display for different devices
and screen sizes.
CSS Syntax:
• A CSS rule-set consists of a selector and
declaration block:
• The selector points to the HTML element you
want to style.
• The declaration block contains one or more
declaration separated by semicolons.
 XML
• Extensible Markup Language (XML).
• Defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a
format that is both human-readable and machine-
readable.
• The design goals of XML focus on simplicity,
generality, and usability across the Internet.
• A markup language is used to provide information
about a document.
• Tags are added to the document to provide the extra
information.
• HTML tags tell a browser how to display the
document.
• A meta language that allow you to create and format
your own document markups.
• HTML tags have a fixed meaning and browsers
know what it is.
• XML tags are different for different application. And
user know what they mean.
• XML tags are used to for display and carry data.
• HTML tags are used to describe documents and data.
Different between HTML and XML
Different between HTML and XML
 Programming languages
• A program is a set of instructions given to a computer
to perform a specific operation.
• computer is a computational device which is used to
process the data under the control of a computer
program.
• While executing the program, raw data is processed
into a desired output format.
• These computer programs are written in a
programming language which are high level
languages.
• High level languages are nearly understandable
human languages which are more complex than the
computer understandable language which are called
machine language, or low level language.
• The computer only understands binary language (the
language of 0’s and 1’s) also called machine-
understandable language or low-level language.
• The programs we are going to write are in a high-
level language which is almost similar to human
language.
• So after knowing the basics, we are ready to create a
very simple and basic program. Like we have
different languages to communicate with each other,
likewise, we have different languages.
• C, C++, C#, Java, python.
Characteristics of a programming Language

• A programming language must be simple, easy to

learn and use, have good readability and human
recognizable.
• Abstraction is a must-have Characteristics for a
programming language in which ability to define the
complex structure and then its degree of usability
comes.
• A portable programming language is always
preferred.
• Programming language’s efficiency must be high so
that it can be easily converted into a machine code
and executed consumes little space in memory.
• A programming language should be well structured
and documented so that it is suitable for application
development.
• Necessary tools for development, debugging, testing,
maintenance of a program must be provided by a
programming language.
• A programming language should provide single environment
known as Integrated Development Environment(IDE).
⮚ Text editor , compiler, debugger and various other virtual
environment testing system.
⮚ IDE is designed for a particular language and can have multiple
language as well.
⮚ IDE is a collection of software, which is used to program,
compiler/decompile and even the test the program.
• A programming language must be consistent in terms of
syntax and semantics.
 Web servers
• A web server can be either a software or a hardware, which
provides the web page via HTTP.
• Defines how a web client requests web pages from web server
and also defines how web servers transfer web pages to web
clients.

• Web server gets the request and find the resources then
response to client. Web server provides services only for web
applications. All the communication between client (web
browser) and the server takes place via HTTP.
• Web servers can also support SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol) and FTP (File Transfer Protocol).
• web servers are computers used to store HTTP
files which makes a website and when a client
requests a certain website, it delivers the
requested website to the client.
 Databases
• A database is a collection of data which is
organized, which is also called as structured data.
• It can be accessed or stored at the computer
system.
• It can be managed through Database
management system (DBMS).
• DBMS is a software which is used to manage
data. Database refers to related data which is in a
structured form.
• Database is systematic collection of data.
• Database support storage and manipulation of
data.
• In Database, data is organized into tables which
consist of rows and columns and it is indexed
so data gets updated, expanded and deleted
easily.
• Computer databases typically contain file
records data
 Types of databases
• Relational Database: A relational database is made
up of a set of tables with data that fits into a
predefined category.
• A relational database stores and manages data by
using a structured query language (SQL). The data
is placed in a traditional table format containing
rows and columns.
• Columns identify each piece of data by unique
characteristics such as name, order number, or
image of a product logo.
• Distributed Database: A distributed database is a
database in which portions of the database are
stored in multiple physical locations, and in which
processing is dispersed or replicated among
different points in a network.

• A distributed database is a collection of multiple

interconnected databases, which are spread
physically across various locations that
communicate via a computer network.
• Cloud Database: A cloud database is a
database that typically runs on a cloud
computing platform , such as Amazon web
services(AWS), microsoft Azure, or google
Cloud platform. Database service provides
access to the database. Database services
make the underlying software- stack
transparent to the user.
 SQL
• Structured Query Language or SQL is a standard
Database language which is used to create,
maintain and retrieve the data from relational
databases like MySQL, Oracle, SQL Server, PostGre,
etc.
• All databases that are not relational (or do not use
fixed structure tables to store data) and therefore
do not use SQL,
• Examples of NoSQL are MongoDB, DynamoDB,
Cassandra, etc
• SQL also differs from other computer languages because
it describes what the user wants the computer to do
rather than how the computer should do it. (In more
technical terms, SQL is a declarative or descriptive
language rather than a procedural one.) SQL contains no
IF statement for testing conditions, and no GOTO, DO, or
FOR statements for program flow control. Rather, SQL
statements describe how a collection of data is to be
organized, or what data is to be retrieved or added to
the database. The sequence of steps to do those tasks is
left for the DBMS to determine.
 SQL uses:
• Data definition: It is used to define the structure and organization of
the stored data and relationships among the stored data items.
• Data retrieval: SQL can also be used for data retrieval.
• Data manipulation: If the user wants to add new data, remove data,
or modifying in existing data then SQL provides this facility also.
• Access control: SQL can be used to restrict a user’s ability to retrieve,
add, and modify data, protecting stored data against unauthorized
access.(SQL can be used to limit a user's ability to retrieve, add, and
modify data, thereby protecting stored data from unauthorized
access.)
• Data sharing: SQL is used to coordinate data sharing by concurrent
users, ensuring that changes made by one user do not inadvertently
wipe out changes made at nearly the same time by another user.(SQL
is used to coordinate data sharing among users simultaneously,
ensuring that changes made by one user do not accidentally
overwrite changes made by another user almost at the same time.)
SQL commands are mainly categorized into
five categories are:
 DDL
• CREATE It is used to create a new table in the
database.
Syntax:
CREATE TABLE TABLE_NAME (COLUMN_NAME D
ATATYPES[,....]);
Example:
CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE(Name VARCHAR2(20),
Email VARCHAR2(100), DOB DATE);
• DROP: It is used to delete both the structure
and record stored in the table.
Syntax
DROP TABLE table_name;
Example
DROP TABLE EMPLOYEE;
• ALTER: It is used to alter the structure of the database.
This change could be either to modify the characteristics
of an existing attribute or probably to add a new attribute.
• Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name COLUMN-
definition;
• ALTER TABLE STU_DETAILS ADD(ADDRESS VARCHAR2(20));

• ALTER TABLE STU_DETAILS MODIFY (NAME VARCHAR2(20)

);
• TRUNCATE: It is used to delete all the rows
from the table and free the space containing
the table.
Syntax:
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;
Example:
• TRUNCATE TABLE EMPLOYEE;
 DML
• INSERT: The INSERT statement is a SQL query. It is used to insert
data into the row of a table.
• Syntax:
INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME
(col1, col2, col3,.... col N)
VALUES (value1, value2, value3, .... valueN);
example:
INSERT INTO javatpoint (Author, Subject) VALUES ("Sonoo", "DBMS
");
• UPDATE: This command is used to update or
modify the value of a column in the table.
• Syntax:
UPDATE table_name SET [column_name1= value1,...
column_nameN = valueN] [WHERE CONDITION]
For example:
UPDATE students
SET User_Name = 'Sonoo'
WHERE Student_Id = '3'
• DELETE: It is used to remove one or more row
from a table.
• Syntax:
• DELETE FROM table_name [WHERE condition]
;
• For example:
• DELETE FROM javatpoint
• WHERE Author="Sonoo";
 Data Control Language

• Grant: It is used to give user access privileges to

a database.
GRANT SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE TO SOME_
USER, ANOTHER_USER;

• Revoke: It is used to take back permissions from

the user.
REVOKE SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE FROM US
ER1, USER2;
 Transaction Control Language

• Commit: Commit command is used to save all

the transactions to the database.
• Rollback: Rollback command is used to undo
transactions that have not already been saved
to the database.
• SAVEPOINT: It is used to roll the transaction
back to a certain point without rolling back
the entire transaction.
 Data Query Language

• Syntax:
• SELECT expressions
• FROM TABLES
• WHERE conditions;
• For example:
• SELECT emp_name
• FROM employee
• WHERE age > 20;
 Microsoft access
• Microsoft Access is just one part of Microsoft’s
overall data management product strategy.
• It stores data in its own format based on the
Access Jet Database Engine.
• Like relational databases, Microsoft Access also
allows you to link related information easily. For
example, customer and order data. However, Access
2013 also complements other database products
because it has several powerful connectivity
features.
• It can also import or link directly to data stored in other
applications and databases.
• As its name implies, Access can work directly with data
from other sources, including many popular PC
database programs, with many SQL (Structured Query
Language) databases on the desktop, on servers, on
minicomputers, or on mainframes, and with data stored
on Internet or intranet web servers.
• Access can also understand and use a wide variety of
other data formats, including many other database file
structures.
• You can export data to and import data from
word processing files, spreadsheets, or
database files directly.
• Access can work with most popular databases
that support the Open Database Connectivity
(ODBC) standard, including SQL Server, Oracle,
etc.
• Software developers can use Microsoft
Access to develop application software.
 Pharmacy drug database
• Pharmaceutical Drugs
• There are thousands of medications available in the United States.
These medications range from simple cough medications to more
powerful medications, such as chemotherapy drugs. It would be
impossible for any pharmacist to know about each and every drug
available. Just imagine you are a pharmacist and a patient or
doctor asks you about a medication that is unfamiliar to you. How
can you answer questions about a drug that you do not know
much about?
• Luckily for pharmacists, there are drug databases and web
resources that are useful tools that can be used to learn more
about a medication or drug that may be somewhat unfamiliar to
them.
• Drug databases are sites where information about
drugs and medications are stored, and one of the
largest (and most commonly used) drug databases is
compiled by the Food & Drug Administration (FDA).
The FDA is a federal agency that oversees and
controls all medications in the U.S., which includes:
• Over-the-counter (OTC) medications
• Prescription medications
• Dietary supplements
• Vaccines
 To search this database, you simply need to go to the FDA
drug database's website. Once you get to this website, you
are able to search the database by typing in the name of
the drug or by typing in any active ingredient of a drug.
• Additionally, the FDA drug database can be used to search
drugs that are currently going through clinical trials and/or
the approval process. The FDA must approve a drug before
it is legally able to be sold and used in the United States.
Therefore, drug companies must formally submit an
application to the FDA for the drug to be approved. The
drugs that have been submitted to the FDA but not yet
approved can be found in this database.
 example

• The Drug Bank database is a comprehensive,

freely accessible, online database containing
information on drugs and drug targets. As both
a bioinformatics and a cheminformatics
resource, DrugBank combines detailed drug (i.e.
chemical, pharmacological and pharmaceutical)
data with comprehensive drug target (i.e.
sequence, structure, and pathway) information.
 Application of computers in pharmacy
• Computer are now a days used in pharmaceutical in industries,
hospitals and in various departments for drug information,
education, evaluation, analysis, medication history and for
maintenance of financial records.
• They have become indispensable in the development of clinical
pharmacy, hospital pharmacy and pharmaceutical research.(In
the growth of clinical pharmacy, hospital pharmacy, and
pharmaceutical research, they have become crucial.)
• Computers are also useful for patient profile monitoring,
medication, database management and material management.
• It is useful in providing on drug interactions, drug information
services and patient counseling.
 Drug information storage and retrieval
• Information storage and retrieval is the systematic process of
collecting data so that they can be located and displayed on
request.(The systematic process of gathering data so that it
can be found and displayed when needed is known as
information storage and retrieval.)
• Computers and data processing techniques have made
possible the high-speed, selective retrieval of large amount of
information for government, commercial and academic
purposes. (For use in government, business, and academia,
computers and data processing methods have made it
possible to quickly and selectively retrieve large amounts of
information.)
 Drug information storage and retrieval

IDENTIFICATION OF INFORMATION STORAGE

• It can refer to a place like a storage room
where paper records are kept. It can also refer
to a storage device
• such as a computer hard disk , CD, DVD or
similar device which can hold data. TYPES OF
STORAGE CD/DVD, HARD DRIVE, PEN DRIVE,
FLOPPY DISK
 Drug information storage and retrieval

IDENTIFICATION OF INFORMATION RETRIEVAL

• Information retrieval (IR) is the process of
obtaining information system resources that
are relevant to an information need from a
collection of those resources.
• Information retrieval system is a system used
to store information that can be processed,
searched, retrieved and unfolded to various
user population.
 Drug information storage and retrieval

COMPONENTS OF INFORMATION RETRIEVAL (IR)

The main IR components are given below.
• DATABASE
• SEARCH ENGINE
• LANGUAGE
• INTERFACE( A simple visual interface with
meaningful icons and audio capabilities assists
international children in effectively seeking
information ).
 Drug information storage and retrieval
DATABASE : A database is systematic collection of data.
• They support electronic storage and manipulation of data.
• Database make data management easy.
SEARCH ENGINE : A program that searches and identifies
item in database that correspond to keywords or
characters specified by the user.
• Search procedure can be categorized as basic or advance
search procedure. Capacity of search mechanism
determines what retrieval technique will be available to
user and how information Stored in database can be
retrieved.
 Drug information storage and retrieval
LANGUAGE : Information relies on language when being
processed, transferred or communicated.(Language is
necessary for the processing, transmission, and
communication of information.)
LANGUAGE CAN BE OF TWO TYPES.
• 1. NATURAL : These languages can be easily
understood and created by any user.
• 2. CONTROLLED: Controlled languages are such
vocabulary languages that are typically created and
maintained by a particular organization.
 Drug information storage and retrieval
• INTERFACE :It is concerned with whether or not an
information retrieval system is user friendly. The
quality of interface is checked by interaction mode.
It determiners the success of the information
retrieval system. In computing , An interface is
shared boundary across which two or more sperate
components of a computer system exchange
information.(An interface in computing is a shared
boundary that allows two or more independent
computer system components to exchange data.)
 Pharmacokinetics
• Pharmacokinetics described as what the body
does to a drug, (pharmacokinetics is the study
of movement of the drug into, through, and
out of the body and also describe the drug
absorption, distribution, metabolism, and
excretion with in the body.
• It also deals with all processes involved in the
changes of concentration of the drug in the
body.
• It determine route of administration, dose,
onset of action, duration of action and
frequency of drug administration.
• It involve four process:
1. Absorption
2. Distribution
3. Metabolism
4. Elimination/ excretion
 Pharmacokinetics
• Absorption: is the process that brings a drug
from the administration, e.g., tablet, capsule,
into the systemic circulation.
• Absorption from the side of administration
permits entry of the drug (either directly or
indirectly) in the plasma.
• Distribution : the drug may then reversibly
leave the bloodstream and distribute into the
interstitial and intracellular fluids.
 Pharmacokinetics
• Metabolism: Metabolism is the processing of the
drug by the body into subsequent compounds.
• The drug may be biotransformed by metabolism
by the liver or the tissues.
• Elimination/ excretion: Excretion is the process by
which the drug is eliminated from the body.
• Finally the drug and its metabolites are
elimination from the body in urine, bile or feces.
 Computer in pharmacokinetics
• Computers have been used extensively in the field
of pharmacokinetics as instructional tool, in
addition to simulations, data analysis, and dosage
calculation.
• Over the past 20 years, pharmacokinetic programs
have been developed for clinical decision making.
These clinical pharmacokinetic software programs
are designed to assist the clinician in the analysis,
interpretation and reporting of serum drug
concentration data for a variety of medications.
 pharmacokinetics
• Computer-based pharmacokinetic simulations
can be used for educational as well as
research purposes. Pharmacokinetic
simulations can be used to visualize how the
change in any of the pharmacokinetic
parameters can affect the drug concentration-
time in the body, which can be useful for
understanding the basic pharmacokinetic
concepts.
• Pharmacokinetic classes are ideal for
computer-based instruction because the
different pharmacokinetic parameters that
govern the drug concentration-time play role
in the body can be related together by
mathematical expressions.
• This makes graphical presentation of the drug
concentration-time play role very useful for
presenting the interplay between the different
pharmacokinetic parameters.
• Computer-based pharmacokinetic simulations
can be used for educational as well as
research purposes.
• Pharmacokinetic simulations can be used to
visualize how the change in any of the
pharmacokinetic parameters can affect the
drug concentration-time in the body, which
can be useful for understanding the basic
pharmacokinetic concepts.
• For research, simulations of the
gastrointestinal tract (GIT) factors that can
affect drug absorption have been used to
predict the absorption of compounds with
different properties.
• Besides, simulation of the drug concentration-
time in different body organs based on in vitro
tissue distribution information have been used
for developing physiologically based
pharmacokinetic (PBPK) models.
 Some commercial software
• Kinetica
• PK sim
• Calcusyn
• Data kinetics
• SAAM II
 Hospital and clinical pharmacy
• Hospital pharmacy is division of hospital which
monitors on the receiving and allotment of
drugs and medicines and professional
supplies, stores them and dispenses to
inpatient, outpatient and may have a
manufacturing extension to manufacture
pharmaceuticals and parenterals.
 Hospital and clinical pharmacy
• Clinical pharmacy is the branch of Pharmacy
where pharmacists provide patient care that
optimizes the use of medication and promotes
health, wellness, and disease prevention. A
clinical pharmacist often collaborate with
physicians and other healthcare professional
to patient care.
 Role of clinical pharmacist
• Prescription monitoring.
• Prescribing advice to medical and nursing staff
• Medication errors and adverse drug reaction
reporting.
• Patient disease history taking.
• Patient education and counseling.
• Pharmacokinetics and therapeutic drug level
monitoring.
 Hospital and clinical pharmacy
• Patient record maintenance is vital job in
hospitals but with the help of computers, data
can be maintained easily and also updated
time to time.
• Maintenance of stock means inventory control
can be achieved very well by using computers.
For this purpose, periodic or perpetual
inventory control systems may be adapted.
 Role Computers in Hospital pharmacy
• To detect the items which have reached minimum order
level.
• To prepare list of items to be purchased and their
quantities.
• To prepare purchase orders for vendors and to avoid
duplication.
• To detect the infrequently purchased items for possible
return or elimination from pharmacy’s drug supply.
• To produce periodic summary and purchasing and
inventory control statistics.
 Role Computers in Hospital pharmacy
• Providing a receipt for the patient.
• Record maintaining of various drug data. E.g. Drug data
information.
• Monitoring patient’s B.P., plus rate etc.
• Maintaining records of dispensing drug to in-patient and
outpatient.
• Computer program are designed to calculate drug dosage to
suit individual patients need.
• Apart from this, drug interactions may be screened by using
programs like MEDIPHOR (monitoring and Evaluating of Drug
interactions by a pharmacy oriented reporting) and PAD
(Pharmacy Automated Drug Interaction Screening).
 Role Computers in clinical pharmacy
• Management of patient record.
• Making entries of medication order.
• Preparing patient medication profile.
• To record drag- drug interaction & adverse drug reaction.
• Automated pharmacy drug interaction screening system.
• Building drug database which gives complete details
description of drug.
• Medical research.
• Building computerized drug information system.
Electronic prescribing and discharge system

• A medical prescription is given by a particular or other

qualified health care practitioner generally to
purchase a prescribed drug from the pharmacist.
• But in recent times, computer based medical
prescription also known as electronic prescriptions or
e-prescriptions(e-Rx) are being used.
• E-prescription allow a physician, pharmacist, nurse or
physician’s assistant to electronically transmit a new
prescription or renewal authorization of a prescription
to a community pharmacy or mail order pharmacy.
Electronic prescribing system(eRx)
• E-prescription is a technology or framework
that allow physicians and other medical
practitioner to write and send prescription to
a participating pharmacies electronically
instead of handwritten or faxed note or
calling-in prescriptions.
 Electronic prescribing system
An ideal e-prescribing system must be cable of:
• Patient identification
• Generating a complete active medication list.
• Access to patient historical data.
• Prescribe or add new medication and select the pharmacy
where the prescription will be filled.
• View details of medication , remove a medication from active
medication list, change does etc.
• Printing prescription.
• Electronically transmit prescription to a pharmacy.
• Showing availability of lower cost, therapeutically similar
alternatives (if any).
 Advantages
• Reduce prescribing and dispensing errors.
• Decrease the work needed to execute a
prescription.
• Speed receipt of prescribed drugs.
• Avoid more adverse drug interaction and
reaction.
• Reduce the incidence of drug abuse by
duplication of prescription.
 Disadvantages
• Software design issues: the design features of
the e-prescribing system may increase the
likelihood of errors due to poor screen design or
automated filling function etc, which can effort
patient’s safety. Due to default in software or
network error, delay in the arrival of a-
prescription can result in the patient discontent
and increase waiting the time as patient may
arrive at the pharmacy before an order has been
received.
• Cost disadvantages: Often limitation of e-
prescribing system includes cost association
with its use like start-up cost, maintenance
cost & expenses on transaction of e-
prescription to the chain pharmacy can be
negotiated by large chain pharmacy but not
affordable by smaller chain pharmacies. They
have to pay more to utilize e-prescribing
system.
 Electronic discharge system
• Paper based discharge system are often found illegal,
incomplete or received too late for the information to be
considered clinically useful.
• But electronic discharge system can address known
deficiencies and improve the continuation of care,
communication & accuracy of data in discharge summary.
EDS system eliminates possible source of error that may
result when scanning or faxing paper based discharge
summaries.
• Risk of patient safety occurs on discharge from hospital,
when vital information is not transferred quickly to the
doctors and to the patients.
 Electronic discharge system
• So, the e-discharge summary system is a way
that enables hospitals to safely transfer the
information using coded data which is
transferred also to the doctor's IT system when
a patient is discharged from hospital care which
ensures all the relevant information on
diagnosis, medications & allergies about the
patient is shared with general doctor in order to
improve the quality & consistency of care.
 barcode medicine identification and
automated dispensing of drugs
• BARCODE: A barcode a small image of lines
and the number containing data that can be
scanned from the barcode scanners. In recent
time, other devices such as Smartphone and
tablets have also been designed with barcode
reading capabilities.
 Introduction
• Barcode medication administration is a barcoded
system to prevent errors in healthcare system and to
improve accuracy and generate online records of
medication administration. Its overall goals are to
improve the quality and safety of medication receiving
the correct medication at correct time by
electronically validating and documenting
medications. The information encoded in the
barcoded allows for the comparison of medicine being
administered with what was ordered for the patient.
• Barcoded medication administration system is
an inventory control system that uses
barcodes to prevent human error in the
distribution of prescription medications at
hospitals.
 Objectives
• Identification of medicine
• Patient identification
• Maintaining patient’s safety
• Management of inventory
• For BCMA, each drug in the hospital is labelled with
a unique barcode. When a patient is prescribed
medication, it is faxed/ sent electronically/ hand
delivered to the hospital's pharmacy and entered
into dispenses the barcoded dose of drug to the
patient’s wristhand and the drug. If the barcode
system cannot match the drug to the given with the
other in the system, I alerts the attender with a
visual warning. each patient’s barcode holds all the
vital information about the patient and medication
 A BCMA system consists of
• A barcode printer
• A barcode reader
• A mobile computer with Wi-Fi
• A computer server
• A suitable software
 Advantages of BCMA SYSTEM
• Improve patient safety through the reduction
of medication administration errors.
• Improve nursing staff job satisfaction by
minimizing nurse staffing time requirements.
• Generate positive public relations with the
hospital’s community.
• Improve patient satisfaction.
 Disadvantages of BCMA SYSTEM
• The key disadvantages for barcode is the they
require a line of sight in order to be read.
• Barcode scanners usually have to be within 15 feet
of the barcode in order to read its data.
• Barcode are typically printed on paper or plastic,
which makes them easy to damage. A damaged
barcode can’t be read by a scanner.
• Items must be scanned individually if you’re using
barcode technology
• Barcode can be easily replicated.
 Automated dispensing of drugs
• Hospitals and pharmacies worldwide have increasingly
embraced automated prescription dispensing technology
since it’s introduction in US in 1980s. One of the main
advantages of such system is the machine’s ability to dispense
large volumes of medication quickly while eliminating the
chance of human error. This has elevated patient’s safety level
when the machine are used correctly.
• The dispensing machine’s key function includes barcode
scanning, medication labelling, tracking, controlled dispensing
and automatic documentation. All these features are designed
to reduce risk of human error, ensure safe dispensing of
medication and handle administration quickly.
 Automated dispensing of drugs
• An automated dispensing cabinet(ADC) or
Automated dispensing machine (ADM) is a
computerized drug storage device or cabinet
designed for hospitals. ADCs allow medications
to be stored and dispensed automatically while
controlling and tracking drug distribution.
• This is also called unit- based cabinet(UBCs),
• automated dispensing cabinet,automated
distributed cabinet.
 Advantages of ADM
• They can store and manage over 200 medications plus the
patient information.
• Customer do not have to wait as long to receive
medication and the machine can fill a prescription much
faster than a human can.
• ADM enhance pharmacy workflow and efficiency
• It reduce the risk of medication error and provides high
safety.
• Pharmacists get free time to talk to the patient about
their medications , thus increases patient interaction
time.
• It reduces cost and waste. Without ADM system,
many times a pharmacist when draws 3ml from a
10ml vial, have to discard the remaining medicine as
it becomes unsterile. But with ADM system, the
medicine can be drawn from the same vial several
time with proper sterility.(frequently has to throw
away the remaining medication after drawing 3 ml
from a 10 ml vial because it no longer remains
sterile. However, the ADM system allows for multiple
sterile draws of medication from a single vial.)
 Types of ADS
• Pharmacy based: ADS is used in pharmacy drug
store where the mechanism of dispensing of
medicine is carried out by the robotic arm or
dispensing device.(take your input,n give u the
specific medicine).
• Ward based: this ADS is used in hospitals, the
method involves accessing of medication by nurse
by entering appropriate patient details, user name
and password. The medication can also be accessed
by room number or code given to the patient .
• Automated unit dose: the medicine will come out
(unit wise dose . like eg.randomly if someone need 2
capsule of medicine then will give u 2only n
someone will need 1 then will give 1 only like that
the medicine will come out unit wise)The medication
dose stored in calibrated cabinet(The amount of
medicine kept in a cabinet that has been calibrated.).
After placement of dispensing order, the ADM ejects
the medication from the cabinet. The method is
followed by packaging and labelling the medication.
 Mobile technology and adherence
monitoring
BASIC TERMINOLOGY
• Adherence: It is generally described as the extent to which
patients take medications as prescribed by their health care
providers.(Adherence is generally defined as how closely
patients follow their doctor’s orders when taking
medication.)
• M-health: M-health or mobile health is a term used for the
practice of medicine & public health supported by mobile
devices. The m-health has emerged from e-health, the use
of technology, mobile devices & communication
satellites(network system) for( health services provide) and
information.
 INTRODUCTION

• Adherence to long term therapy in outpatient

department is difficult as outpatient department
generally faces improper care or are out of watch
from the healthcare professionals.
• And these adherence is necessary to reduce the
prevalence of chronic diseases such as AIDS,
diabetes, tuberculosis, malaria etc for which
generally patients are given long term therapy
without getting admitted in hospital i.e. Such
patients are generally outpatients.
• Thus, healthcare providers are now using a variety of
mobile technologies to help patients take their
medications and remain on a care plan, as the
consequence of non-adherence can be costly and
deadly.
• To remind people/patient to pick up or renew their
prescriptions, doctors and pharmacists are using m-
health platforms that can send automated personalized
messages to a patient's e-mail, Smartphone or even a
smart watch. Along with this, smart/digital pillboxes
meanwhile can keep track of medication, remind a
patient to take a medication & even record and send
the data back to the respective health provider.
 APPLICATIONS

• Education & awareness programs- In such

programs m-health is largely about spreading
of mass information from sources to receipt
through SMS to offer informations including
treatment methods, disease management etc.
• Helpline- Helpline typically consist of a specific
phone number that any individual is able to
call to gain access to a range medical services.
• Diagnosis & treatment support training for health care workers-
These typically is provided to health care workers in remote areas to
give advice about diagnosis & treatment of patient. Some projects
provide mobile applications for step by step medical operations.

• Disease & outbreak of epidermic tracking and remote data

collection- By using mobile phones, collecting and transmitting data
quickly, cheaply and relatively efficiently. Such data concerning the
location and level of specific disease like malaria, flu etc. can help
medical system or health ministry to identify the outbreaks & target
the medical resource to the area of need.

• Remote monitoring- These allow the health care workers to better

track patient's condition, medication, dose adherence and follow-up
schedules. Remote monitoring is especially helpful in case of AIDS,
cardiovascular disorders, diabetes etc.
 ADVANTAGES
• Increases accuracy and improves efficiency of health care system.
• It has helped patient to complete the medication by providing
periodic medication reminder by the pharmacist or prescribe with
the help of mobile application.
• It helps to generate the report with the help of mobile application
and share the same.
• It also helps the patient to refill the prescription by sending
automatic message both to the pharmacist and to the patient.
• It acts as an information guide to the patient and provides
information regarding particular disease or drug.
• It also helps patients to clear their doubts regarding health issues.
 Diagnostic System

• CAD (computer aided diagnosis) is an

interdisciplinary technology combining
elements of artificial intelligence and
computer vision with radiological and
pathology image processing usually confined
for marking conspicuous structures and
sections.
• For e.g. In mammography (diagnosis of breast
cancer)
 INTRODUCTION

• Computer aided diagnosis (CAD) are the systems that assist

doctors in the interpretation of medical images, CAD system
process digital images for typical appearance and to
highlight conspicuous section such as possible diseases.
• In medical imaging field, CAD helps doctors to take decision
swiftly. Medical imaging deals with information in image
that the medical practitioner and doctors has to evaluate
and analyse abnormally in short time. The analysis is very
crucial task because imaging is the modality to diagnose any
disease at the earliest but this process of acquiring image
should not harm the human body.
• Imaging techniques like MRI, X-RAY, Endoscopy,
Ultrasound etc if acquired with high energy will
provide good quality image but will harm the
body. Hence images are taken in less energy
but the quality of image is of less contrast.
• Thus, CAD system use to improve the quality of
the image which helps to interpret the medical
images correctly and process the images to
highlight the conspicuous part.
 OBJECTIVES OF CAD SYSTEM

• The main objective or goal of CAD is to

identify abnormal signs at an earliest that a
human professionally fails to find. Like in
mammography, identification of small lumps
in dense tissues etc.
 TYPES OF CAD SYSTEM

• CADe
• CADx
• CADe is usually restricted to marking the
visible parts or structures in image.
• Whereas CADx helps to evaluate the
structures identified in CADe. Both CAD
models are significantly important in
identifying the abnormality at an earliest.
 Lab-diagnostic System
• A medical laboratory or clinical laboratory is a
laboratory where clinical pathology tests are
carried out on clinical specimens to obtain
information about the health of a patient to aid in
diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease.
• Clinical Medical laboratories are an example of
applied science, as opposed to research
laboratories that focus on basic science, such as
found in some academic institutions.
• lab diagnostic test: It is an intensive clinical
and functional face to face evaluation of a
patient’s mental health, development
disabilities or any abnormal condition by
generating assessment report.
 Types of Lab-diagnostic System

• clinical diagnostic: A diagnostic made on the

basis of medical signs and patient’s reported
symptoms rather than any test.
• laboratory diagnostic: A diagnostic based
significantly on laboratory reports or test results,
rather than physical evaluation of the patient.
• radiology diagnostic: A diagnostic based on the
results from the medical imaging studies of
conspicuous section.
• computer aided diagnostic providing
symptoms and medical images allows the
computer to identify the problems and
diagnose to the best of its ability.
 introduction
• lab diagnostic system or in-vitro diagnostic system makes
it possible to identify the microorganism causing an
infection diseases and to appropriate treatment. They
also make it possible to detect non-infectious diseases.
• The most basic parameters that to be established
regarding any clinical test are that it should demonstrate
sufficient degree of reliability and validity.
• if these two parameters are not met, then the test value
in assisting a physician/ clinicians to arrive at a diagnostic
conclusion and form a treatment plan or monitor a
patient’s progress in waste/ questionable .
 Advantages
• clinicians rapidly obtain the right result with the
appropriate test for the doubtful health
condition.
• weak points in the test process are readily
recognized, necessary changes are done
immediately.
• human error are minimized and legal certainly
is improved.
• important to detect any outbreak if suspected.
 Patient monitoring system

• Patient monitoring system is defined as

repeated, continuous observation or
measurement of the patient’s physiological
function and the function of the life support
equipments which help in making decision
regarding therapeutic interventions.
• The Patient Monitoring System (PMS) is a very critical
monitoring systems, it is used for monitoring physiological
signals including Electrocardiograph (ECG), Respiration ,
Invasive and Non-Invasive Blood Pressure, Oxygen
Saturation in Human Blood (SpO2), Body Temperature and
other Gases etc.

• Care of the critically ill patient requires prompt and

accurate decision so the life promoting and life saving
therapy can be appropriately applied. and so, ICU specially
requires a computer system for patient monitoring
 Types of patient monitoring systems
1.Single Parameter Monitoring Systems:
• These kind of patient monitoring systems measure the
blood pressure of the human body, SpO2, ECG etc.
2.Multi Parameter Monitoring Systems:
• These patient monitoring systems monitor multiple
critical physiological vital signs like respiration rate,
electrocardiograph, blood pressure etc. Within Multi
Parameter (or Multi Para) patient monitors, there are
different types of systems like 2 Para Patient Monitor, 3
Para Patient Monitor, 5 Para Patient Monitor and 7 Para
Patient Monitor.
 The components of a patient monitoring
system
• (Each patient monitoring system could be
unique, i.e. a pulse oximeter will not have the
same construction as a glucose monitor).
• The patient monitoring device.
• The capital equipment.
• The software.
 The patient monitoring device.

• Although, the term “patient monitoring device” refers to the complete

monitoring system, but for understanding purposes the piece of
equipment that makes contact with the patient can be referred to as
the patient monitoring device.

• The patient monitoring device generally contains a sensor for capturing

important patient information and an interconnect solution that
transmits the information to the capital equipment.

• For example, in a pulse oximeter the piece that clips to the patient’s
finger and senses and transmits their pulse to the capital equipment is
an example of the patient monitoring device component.
 The Capital Equipment
• The patient monitoring device collects important patient data,
that data is then sent to the equipment where it is processed,
stored, and displayed. The equipment that processes, stores
and display this data is called the capital equipment.

• Most capital equipment deployed in patient monitoring apply

a complex interconnect system of connectors,
PCBs(polychlorinated biphenyls, and wire harnesses as well as
some kind of screen/monitor where the data is shared in a
useable format. A computer screen that exhibits the
information of a patient’s ECG P-Wave is an example of the
capital equipment used in a patient monitoring system.
 The Software
• After the patient data is transmitted from the
device to the capital equipment, it needs to be
processed. While the hardware gathers the
data, the software makes the data useable.
The drivers, applications, and programs that
process, store, and visually transform the
information are vital parts of any patient
monitoring system.
 The uses and applications of patient
monitoring systems
• There are a number of applications where patient monitoring
systems are used.

• Patient monitoring systems are crucial to any surgical

operation inside hospital and clinical as walls.
• During an operation, the surgeon must have continuous
access to a patient’s vital signs to mitigate the risk of
something negative happening. In an operating room, you will
typically find some form of thermometer to track a patient’s
temperature, a pulse oximeter to measure oxygen levels, a
capnography machine for monitoring CO2 levels.
• After an operation, many of these same monitoring
devices are used by doctors, nurses, and other
healthcare providers to ensure that post-operative
recovery is going smoothly. Beyond the clinical setting,
remote patient monitoring systems are used in a variety
of applications, such as diabetes care.

• Glucose monitoring devices have been used outside of

the hospital by diabetes patients for years, enabling
both the patient and their physician to prevent
dangerous health events.
 Patient monitoring systems improving
patient care
• During treatment, it is highly imperative to continuously monitor the
vital physiological signs of the patient. Patient monitoring systems hold
an important position in patient care. The consistent developments in
technology not only help us in transmitting the crucial physiological signs
to healthcare workers and also simplifies the measurement and
therefore results in raising the monitoring efficiency of patients. Multi-
parameter Patient Monitoring Systems are used to transmit vital data like
electrocardiographs, respiration rate, blood pressure etc.

• Medical treatments delivered in the intensive care unit make it necessary

for constant monitoring of patients. For constant observation of the
patient, patient monitoring systems provide continuous visibility of the
subject’s physiological condition and provide immediate treatment
whenever required.
 Pharma Information System
• The PMIS(pharmaceutical management
information system) integrates pharmaceutical
data collection, processing, and presentation
of information that helps staff at all levels of a
country’s health system make evidence-based
decisions to manage pharmaceutical services.
 Function of PMIS
• Function An effective PMIS is able to synthesize the large volume of
data generated by pharmaceutical management operations.
• It then processes the data into information for use in planning
activities, estimating demand, allocating resources, and monitoring
and evaluating pharmaceutical management operations.
• This information is often in the form of a few key indicators.
Indicators should be targeted toward staff at all levels so that they
can monitor both their own performance and that of the units for
which they are responsible.
• Another important function of a PMIS is to improve accountability.
• Much of the recording and reporting in a PMIS is intended to create
an audit trail for products as they enter or leave a pharmaceutical
supply system.
 Importance of a pharmaceutical
management information system
• A good PMIS provides the necessary information to
make sound decisions in the pharmaceutical sector.
• in order to manage pharmaceuticals effectively
• Effective pharmaceutical management requires
policymakers, program managers, and health care
providers to monitor information related to patient
adherence, drug resistance, availability of medicines
and laboratory supplies, patient safety, post market
intelligence, product registration, product quality,
financing and program management, among other
issues.
 Bioinformatics(UNIT IV)
• Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field that develops
methods and software tools for understanding
biological data.As an interdisciplinary field of science,
bioinformatics combines biology, computer science,
information engineering, mathematics and statistics to
analyze and interpret biological data.
• Bioinformatics is the collection, classification, storage,
and analysis of biochemical and biological information
using computers especially as applied to molecular
genetics and genomics.
 concept of Bioinformatics
• Bioinformatics or life science informatics has
emerged as a new branch of biotechnology, offering
a fundamental tool to the biologist to accelerate
commercialization of biotechnology.
• Bioinformatics is the classic example of convergence
of biotechnology and information technol­ogy.
Bioinformatics has been the most powerful tools for
data mining in life science, analysis, data searching,
integration and simulation of molecular biological
data using information technology.
 Bioinformatics tools
• BLAST - The full name of the tool is Basic Local
Alignment Search Tool.its used for rapid
searching of nucleotides and protein databases.
• it compares sequence of data with already
characterized sequence to give meaningful
biological information for rapid searching of
nucleotides and protein databases for
unknown sequence used for the search.
• clustal W - it is a general purpose algorithm used for
multiple sequence analysis for DNA or proteins. it
computes best matches for the selected sequences and
line them up to find identities, similarities and
differences.
• FISTA- This tool allows for the comparison of a query
sequence of a DNA sequence database. The tools use a
fast search to initially identify sequence from database
with a high degree of similarity to the query sequence,
then it conduct a second comparison on the initially
selected sequence.
 Objectives

• To organise data in a way that allows researchers to

access existing
data
• information and submit new entities as they are
produced.
• To develop tools and resources that aid in the analysis
of data. E.g. FASTA, BLAST etc.
• To use the tools to analyse the data and interpret the
results in an accurate & biologically meaningful manner.
 Application
• Bioinformatics has a vast application in areas such as:
• Gene sequencing – e.g. In medical, bioinformatics can
be used to identify links between specific diseases and
the gene sequences that cause the disease.
• Gene expression - e.g. The field of pharmacogenomics
uses bioinformatics data to provide medical
treatments to the patients based on their DNA.
• Drug discovery - e.g. Bioinformatics can be used to
develop more efficient vaccines through the
development of new, stronger antibodies.
 Bioinformatics Databases
• Modern biological databases contains data as
well as sophisticated query ability and
bioinformatics data analysis tool hence it is
called as bioinformatics database.
 Bioinformatics Databases

• Sequence database: Nucleic acid and protein

sequences.
eg. GenBank, EMBL(European molecular biology
laboratory), PIR( The protein information Resources).
• Structure database : Solved structure of RNA and
proteins.
eg.Protein Data Bank,SCOP( structural
classification of protein) database, CATH( class,
architecture, topology, homologous superfamily).
• functional database:Physiological role of gene
products.
eg. KEGG: (The kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and
Genomes) is the primary resource for the
japanese GenomeNet service that attempts to
define the relationship between the functional
meaning and utilities of the cell or the organism
and its genome information.
• BRENDA: it is the main collection of enzyme
functional data available to the scientific
community. It is maintained and developed at
the institute of Biochemistry.
• BioCyc: The BioCyc database collection is a
compilation of pathway and genome
information for different organisms.
 Types of databases
• Primary database- Databases consisting of data derived
experimentally such as nucleotide sequences and three
dimensional structures are known as primary databases.
Example- GenBank, EMBL, DDBJ, NDB
• Secondary database-Secondary databases contain the
data that is obtained through the analysis or treatment
of data present in primary databases. For instance, it
can contain conserved protein sequence, signature
sequence active site residues of protein families which
are obtained from multiple sequence alignment of
related proteins, etc.
Example- Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomics
(KEGG),
Protein Families (Pfam) and Structural Classification
of Proteins (SCOP)
• Composite database - Composite databases are
collections of several (usually more than two)
primary database resources. This helps in the
lessening the tedious task of searching through
multiple databases referring to the same data.
 Impact of Bioinformatics in Vaccine
Discovery
• Modern biological databases comprise not only
data but also sophisticated query facilities and
bioinformatics data analysis tools. The
incorporation of bioinformatics methods into
vaccine development reduced the time and cost
of vaccine development and production. Several
alternative techniques are available which are
based on bioinformatics that help to design and
develop effective vaccines. These bioinformatics
based techniques include:
• Reverse Vaccinology: In this technique different
bioinformatics tools are selectively used for the
identification of different structures present in
pathogens like bacteria, virus and parasites,
tumor cells, allergens having ability to
abnormally stimulate immune responses.
• Development of vaccines using reverse
vaccinology has many advantages like:
• i) It facilitates the selection process.
• ii) It has the ability to identify antigens present in small
amounts or expressed only at at certain stages.
• iii) Risky microorganisms can be easily studied.
• Immunoinformatics: it helps for predictions of immune
responses of body against specific antigenic molecules or
pathogens.
• Structural Vaccinology: This technique give emphases on the
conformational properties of macromolecules such as proteins
that make them good candidate antigens. Specific vaccines like
peptide based vaccines with the capability of generating
immunity against different antigenically divergent pathogens are
designed using this method.
 Chromatography Data System
• chromatography is analytical technique used in
most of the sector from pharmaceuticals,
biotechnology industries to detect compounds
during product development and manufacturing.
• chromatography is a method that is used in
laboratories for the separation of a mixture. it is
used to test drug levels and water purity. it is also
determine the nutritional value of the food sample.
it is used to determine the type of chlorophyll in
various photosynthetic organisms.
• chromatographs generated by analytical methods
are displayed, integrated and results will be
calculated by software application called as
chromatographic data systems(CDS).
• CDS helping pharmaceutical industry to increase
efficiency and productivity with automation of
pharmaceutical analysis and providing accurate and
reliable data.
• Sometimes referred to as a chromatography data
management system (CDMS)
• chromatography data system(CDS) is a set of dedicated
data-collection tools that interface
• and/or integrate with a laboratory's chromatography
equipment.
• A base CDS will set up a desired methodology to be used
by the chromatography equipment, acquire data from it.
• process the acquired data, store the information in a
database, and interface with other laboratory informatics
systems to import and export files and data.
 A CDS may be set up for use in three
primary ways:
• as a standalone system that controls two or
more chromatographs
• as a standalone system that controls a single
chromatograph, including LC-MS(Liquid
Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry) or GC-
MS instruments(Gas Chromatography-Mass
Spectrometry)
• as a networked system that controls multiple
instruments in one or more labs
 Chromatography and its types
• The twelve types are: (1) Column Chromatography
(2) Paper Chromatography (3) Thin Layer
Chromatography (4) Gas Chromatography (5) High
Performance Liquid Chromatography (6) Fast
Protein Liquid Chromatography (7) Supercritical
Fluid Chromatography (8) Affinity
Chromatography(9) Reversed Phase
Chromatography (10) Two Dimensional
Chromatography (11) Pyrolysis Gas Chromatography
and (12) Counter Current Chromatography.
• There are different kinds of chromatographic
techniques and these are classified according
• to the shape of bed, physical state of mobile
phase, separation mechanisms. Apart from
• these there are certain modified forms of these
chromatographic techniques involving
• different mechanisms and are hence
categorized as modified or specialized
chromatographic techniques.
• Part of CDS's importance results from the role
played by chromatography in pharmaceutical
analysis, particularly the use of high-
performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
and gas chromatography (GC).
• Pharmaceutical analysis relies primarily on
HPLC and GC. HPLC, GC, and CDS form the
basis of several instrumental analysis
technologies.
• Chromatographic methods have a significant
advantage over traditional analytical methods in
pharmaceutical analysis.
• This was due to the way chromatographic
methods separated and detected low-level
impurities because of their method specificity.
• In early phase drug development, when chemical
and physical properties of active pharmaceutical
ingredients (APIs) are still poorly understood.
• when synthetic processes aren't fully refined,
a specific focus on specificity is particularly
important.
• Since API safety is reliant highly on the
detection and quantification of unknown
impurities that may pose a safety hazard, the
reliability of analytical methods is crucial to
ensuring API safety.
• HPLC and GC became the two main analytical
techniques in pharmaceutical analysis over
time.
• It has become increasingly difficult for
instrument vendors to collect and process
chromatographic data as chromatographic
methods have become more popular.
 Drawbacks
• Due to the dedicated hardware and wiring,
• the CDS was relatively expensive to install.
Increasing the number of users would require
more minicomputers, making scaling up
difficult.
• The performance of the system would
deteriorate as the number of users increased.
• In recent years, instrumental analysis has
become an increasingly significant part of
pharmaceutical development; more and more
data are captured and stored electronically in
GMP or GLP (Good Manufacturing
Practice/Good Laboratory Practice) studies.
• Application servers deploy, manage, support,
and execute server-based computing
applications.
• Distributing an application to a client device is
made possible by a multiuser operating system and
distribution method.
• A client PC does not contain any software
components.
• It only serves as the client's display. Additionally,
CDS using this model was able to increase its
compliance with regulatory guidelines while
reducing the overall implementation and
maintenance costs.
 The Modern CDS

• Modernizing the CDS entails more than just

using server-based computer systems. Another
important feature is direct instrument control,
• which allows the client to direct the instrument.
• CDS systems of the past used directory file
structures,
• which meant raw data and other files, such as
method files for instruments and data
processing methods, were kept separate.
• There was either no connection between these files or
only partial connectivity. This type of file management
had the disadvantage that raw data and methods could
be accidentally overwritten.
• A lock must be applied to the raw data and result files
to prevent this from occurring. If the locked data is to be
reprocessed, the system administrator may need to
unlock the files.
• For LIMS, embedded relational databases have been
widely used because they offer better file organization.
 Laboratory Information Management
System
• A laboratory information Management system
(LIS) is a software system that records, manages,
and stores data for clinical laboratories.
• This software allows you to effectively manage
samples and associated data to increase lab
efficiency.
• By using a LIMS, your lab can automate
workflows, integrate instruments, and manage
samples and associated information.
• by keeping track of data associated with
samples, experiments, laboratory workflows,
and instruments.
• A LIMS acts as an additional member of your
team, automating workflows and tracking all
the important sample information, data,
workflows, and QA/QC results your lab
generates each day.
 A Laboratory Information Management System offers a
multitude of benefits in terms of
laboratory data management. Some of the key functional
benefits of a LIMS are:

• Sample management wherein a user can

efficiently track samples through the
laboratory and allocate storage locations that
mimic the sample storage hierarchy.
• Workflow automation that leads to a decrease
in possible human errors by eliminating
manual entry of data.
• Configurable user interface to meet the
unique requirements of different laboratories
and mirror their existing workflows.
• Secure and restricted access to the data
leading to better data privacy and protection.
• Easy data backup and data mining options,
resolving data accessibility issues.
• User-role based access distribution to mirror the
real-time laboratory personnel hierarchy
• . Ease of reporting, wherein an authorized user
can quickly generate reports pertaining to
(a) the various tests performed, and
(b) data required for auditing and quick analysis
(for example, the total number of samples logged
during a particular period or from a particular
region).
 Components of LIMS
• Electronic lab notebooks.
• Sample management programs.
• Process execution software.
• Records management software.
• Applications to interface with analytical
instruments or data systems.
• Workflow tools.
• Client tracking applications.
• Best practice and compliance databases
 How does a LIMS work?
• LIMS are designed to reduce manual labor by improving
lab efficiency and accuracy. LIMS are designed to handle a
wide range of tasks. Typical functions include:
• Inventory management
• Reporting
• Workflow management
• Record keeping

• It is possible for LIMS systems to differ according to their

manufacturers and the level of support that they provide,
such as mobile capabilities, customization options, and
technical support.
 Sample Management
• The use of a LIMS is common in Sample
Management so that samples can be
documented accurately.
• Samples can be recorded with detailed
information when they are first prepared or
delivered to the lab,
• and that information can be enhanced and
extended throughout their lifecycle
• Typically, this includes information about the
sample's origin, the lab researchers who worked on
it,
• and how the sample moved through the workflow.
• Furthermore, it contains information such as how
the product should be handled and its expiration
date.
• A LIMS holds information about samples so that
they can be lost, contaminated, or expire less
frequently.
 Reporting
• Maintaining accurate and timely reports requires a
LIMS.
• A LIMS can automate many of the tasks involved in
maintaining daily, weekly and monthly reports.
• Additionally, lab workers have the ability to run ad-
hoc instant reports, aiding them in making immediate
decisions.
• In addition, readings can be taken directly from the
equipment and input directly into the system for the
highest level of accuracy when producing reports.
 Inventory Management
• A part of lab management on a daily basis is
keeping track of inventory.
• LIMS systems can automate this process,
ensuring that supplies are ordered based on
the requirements in advance.
• As a result, the lab workflow runs smoothly
and there are no delays or problems caused
by low stock levels.
 Workflow Management
• By automating the assignment of tasks to
researchers and outlining the next step in the
workflow,
• LIMS can streamline a laboratory's workflow.
• Even based on pre-defined rules and criteria,
it can suggest instruments and equipment.
Text Information Management System
• TIMS is not common as LIMS but TIMS is important
for preclinical development as a large no of text
document and other associated information like
image, drawing, and photographs is generated
here
• These documents and information are intellectual
property and therefor need protection and easy
access
• Scientist using TIMS in today work flow use Report
template for report writing.
• Adding data and figures still requires some
cutting and pasting.
• The scientist can send a link for the draft
report to the reviewers after it has been
completed.
• change" feature allows the reviewers to make
changes and corrections to the document.
• Authors have the option of accepting or
rejecting the changes after the review is
completed.
• A similar process can be employed if auditing
is required. TIMS creates an unalterable PDF
file after adding a date, if needed, and a
signature to the finalized document.
• The document is version controlled for any
subsequent changes.
• A document issued to end users can also be
accessed remotely and electronically.
• When TIMS is compared with the old process,
it has demonstrated its advantages.
Preclinical Development Documentation
Needs
• Specification documents and analytical test
procedures - Drug substances and products
used in clinical trials as well as stability
samples are tested according to these
documents.
• With TIMS, the analyst will have access to the
documents via a secured database, and then
after the test has been completed the
documents should be destroyed.
• Laboratory notebooks - Notebooks for
laboratory use contain information on
experimental procedures, observations, raw
data, and other critical elements.