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M.SC. 1ST SEMESTER

Paper Name: - Geosciences and Image Interpretation

Assignment Tittle: - Faults: Types and Delineation on Satellite Image
Academic Year : - 2024 – 2025
Presented by: - Bijay Sen
Registration No: - 24260402005
Introduction to Fault
A fault is a fracture or zone of fractures between two blocks of rock. Faults allow the blocks
to move relative to each other. This movement may occur rapidly, in the form of an
earthquake- or may occur slowly, in the form of creep. Both the compressional and tensional
forces work for the formation of fault.

Faults may range in length from a few millimeters to thousands of kilometers. Most faults
produce repeated displacements over geologic time. During an earthquake, the rock on one
side of the fault suddenly slips with respect to the other. The fault surface can be horizontal
or vertical or some arbitrary angle in between.
 Different parts of Fault
 Fault plane: A plane along which the rupture has actually
taken place or where one block is moved with respect to other
is known as ‘Fault Plane’.
 Hanging wall and Footwall: The upper block or, in other
words, the block above the fault plane is called ‘Hanging
wall’. The block below the fault plane or, in other words,
beneath the fault plane is called the Footwall.
 Hade: It is the inclination of the fault plane that is vertical.
 Throw: It is the vertical displacement between the Hanging
wall and Footwall.
 Heave: It is the horizontal displacement between the Hanging
wall and Footwall.
 Strike and Dip: Any fault plane can be completely described
with two measurements: its strike and its dip. The strike is the
direction of the fault trace on the Earth's surface. The dip is the
measurement of how steeply the fault plane slopes. For
example, if you dropped a marble on the fault plane, it would
roll exactly down the direction of dip.
 Types of Faults
 Main Types of Faults: -

 Normal Fault: -

In a normal fault, the hanging wall moves downward relative to the

footwall. This type of fault is associated with extensional tectonic
forces, typically found at divergent plate boundaries.

o Description: A fault where the hanging wall moves downward

relative to the footwall.

o Cause: Caused by tensional stress (pulling apart).

o Common Location: Divergent plate boundaries (e.g., rift valleys

or mid-ocean ridges).

o Example: East African Rift.

East African Rift System (East Africa)
 Reverse Fault (or Thrust Fault): -

In a reverse fault, the hanging wall moves upward relative to the footwall. Reverse
faults are associated with compressional tectonic forces and are commonly found at
convergent plate boundaries.

o Description: A fault where the hanging wall moves upward relative to the footwall.

o Cause: Caused by compressional stress (pushing together).

o Common Location: Convergent plate boundaries (e.g., mountain ranges).

o Sub-Type: If the fault plane angle is less than 30°, it's called a thrust fault.

o Example: Himalayan thrust fault.

Himalayan Frontal Thrust (Himalayas)

 Strike-Slip Fault: -

In a strike-slip fault, the movement is primarily horizontal, with minimal

vertical displacement. The rocks on either side of the fault slide past each other
horizontally.

o Description: Blocks of rock move horizontally past each other with little
vertical movement.

o Cause: Caused by shear stress (forces acting parallel to the fault line).

o Common Location: Transform plate boundaries.

o Sub-Types: Right-lateral (dextral): If the opposite block moves to the right.

Left-lateral (sinistral): If the opposite block moves to the left.

o Example: San Andreas Fault (right-lateral).

San Andreas Fault (California, USA)

 Oblique-Slip Fault: -

Oblique-slip faults combine both vertical (dip-slip) and horizontal (strike-slip)

movements. These faults do not fit neatly into the categories of normal,
reverse, or strike-slip.

o Description: A combination of strike-slip and either normal or reverse

faulting.

o Cause: Caused by both shear and compressional or tensional stress.

o Movement: The fault exhibits both horizontal and vertical movement.

o Example: Faults in areas experiencing complex tectonic stresses.

Owens Valley fault

 Cause of Faulting
 Tectonic Forces:
o Compression: When tectonic plates converge or move toward each other, compressional forces can lead to
the formation of reverse or thrust faults. These faults result from the shortening and thickening of the Earth’s
crust.
o Extension: Tectonic plates moving away from each other create extensional forces, which are responsible for
the formation of normal faults. Normal faults occur when the Earth’s crust is stretched and thinned.
 Volcanic Activity: The movement of magma within the Earth’s crust can exert pressure on surrounding rocks,
causing them to fracture and form faults. Volcanic activity can also create fissures and faults in volcanic rocks as
lava flows and solidifies.
 Fault Reactivation: Existing faults may be reactivated due to changes in tectonic stress. A fault that was
previously inactive or had minimal movement can become active again when new stress conditions are applied.
 Localized Stress: Faulting can occur due to localized stress caused by factors such as the weight of overlying
rocks, the presence of pre-existing weaknesses in the crust, or the accumulation of stress from various sources
over time.
 Human Activities: Human activities, particularly those associated with mining, reservoir induced seismicity
(due to the filling of large reservoirs), hydraulic fracturing (fracking), and underground nuclear tests, can induce
faulting and trigger earthquakes.
 Effects of Faulting
 Here are some of the key effects of faulting:

 Earthquakes: Faults are often associated with seismic activity and can be the source of earthquakes. The
movement of rocks along a fault plane release stored stress energy, resulting in ground shaking, surface
rupture, and potentially damaging seismic events.
 Fault Scarps: Faults can create steep, linear slopes or cliffs known as fault scarps. These scarps are visible
surface expressions of fault movement and are often used by geologists to identify active or recently active
faults.
 Landscape Modification: Faulting can significantly alter the landscape. Normal faults can create fault-block
mountains, valleys, and rift valleys as the Earth’s crust is stretched and blocks of rock move upward or
downward. Reverse faults can lead to the formation of thrust-faulted mountain ranges and folded rock layers.
 Mineral Deposits: Faults can serve as pathways for the movement of mineral-rich fluids. This can lead to the
concentration of valuable minerals along fault zones, making them important targets for resource exploration.
 Groundwater Movement: Faults can influence the flow of groundwater. They may act as barriers to
groundwater flow, creating artesian aquifers or causing groundwater to accumulate along fault zones.
 Seismic Hazards: Faults in urban areas can pose significant risks to infrastructure and public safety. Buildings,
bridges, and pipelines constructed across active fault lines may be damaged or destroyed during earthquakes.
 Fault Monitoring and Prediction
 Here are key aspects of fault monitoring and prediction:
 Seismic Monitoring:
Seismometers: Seismometers are instruments that detect ground motion caused
by seismic waves. They are widely deployed worldwide and form the basis of
earthquake monitoring networks.
Seismic Networks: Networks of seismometers are established in earthquake-
prone regions to continuously monitor ground motion. Data from multiple stations
are used to determine the location, depth, and magnitude of earthquakes.
 GPS and Satellite Monitoring:
Global Positioning System (GPS): GPS technology is used to monitor the slow
movement of tectonic plates. GPS stations positioned along fault zones can track
crustal deformation over time, providing insights into stress accumulation and
potential for future earthquakes.
 Ground Deformation Studies:
Laser Scanning and Lidar: These technologies are used to measure surface
deformation and fault motion with high accuracy. They can help identify subtle
changes in the landscape caused by faulting.
 Fault Mapping and Geological Studies:
Geological Surveys: Geological studies and field surveys help identify active
fault traces, assess fault slip rates, and understand the history of past earthquakes
along fault lines.
Fault Delineation on Satellite Image
Based on the definitions of lineaments, drainage patterns (including pattern the length, spatial distributions), and the
lithological contacts between different rock types, the faults could be mapped. These geological features mostly
resemble a fault lines. The most important features are the presence of drainage lines patterns and fractures. Lineaments,
drainages, lithological contacts, and fault lines data are important data and used in this research for fault segments
mapping using GIS technique.

 METHODS: -

 Lineament Factor: -

Lineaments are related to large structural fractures and it may represent zones of weakness. Also, the presence of
tectonic structures such as linear features could be important factor in geological hazard occurrences. Filtering is useful
in image enhancement. An edge-enhancing filter can be used to highlight any changes of gradient within the image
features, such as structural lines. They generated lineament maps and determined several significant structural features.
lineaments have been defined as natural crustal structures that may represent a zone of structural weakness.
 Drainage Patterns Factor: -
The drainage pattern is apparently being controlled by structure and lithology in the any area. The lithologic variation
has given a rise to different drainage patterns. For example, radial and dendritic drainage patterns are developed over
granitic rocks. Moreover, the most important feature in is the presence of drainage lines patterns and fault lines. It is
clearly to see that there is a good relationship between fault lines and drainage pattern system.
Geological features are any alignment of features on satellite images such as the various types recognized including
topographic, drainage, vegetative, and color alignments. Digital elevation models (DEMs) are very useful in aiding the
classification of landforms for many purposes such as recognition of drainage patterns. Extraction of topographic
feature information from DEMs has become increasingly popular in structural analysis. Digital elevation models
(DEMs) data were used to trace tectonic features and mapping geologically and topographically defined structures in
many areas. The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) data were also used to trace drainage pattern system and
mapping structures features. The extraction of negative system lines (fault lines) from DEM data mostly resembles
drainage lines patterns.
 Fault Factor: -
Geological structures are patterns such as faults, folds, joints, and others found in the rocks resulting from natural
deformation. Remote sensing data and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) can be used to detect faults and other
structural features. Remote sensing data can also be used to identify morphotectonic landforms, such as fault scarps,
erosional benches, and offset streams. These landforms can indicate the occurrence of both vertical and horizontal slip
components in sedimentary sequences.
 Conclusions
In summary, faults are essential geological features that play a vital role in Earth’s dynamic processes. Their study and
monitoring are critical for our understanding of tectonics, seismic hazards, resource exploration, and the geological
history of regions around the world.

Remote sensing data and GIS technique are powerful tools in identifying geological structures such as fault segments
in the urban area. The use of different types of data such as drainage patterns, faults, lineament, and lithological
contacts with spatial resolution of 30 m was combined through a process of integration and index overlay modeling
technique for producing the susceptibility map (potential fault zones) of fault segments. GIS spatial overlay technique
was used to determine the spatial relationships of all the criteria (factors) and sub criteria (classes) within layers
(maps) to classify and map the potential area of fault zones. The fault segments map shows that there is good
correlation and distribution between fault segments and faults. Active or reactivated faults can cause enormous
damage to settlement or urban areas by rock mass movement along the fault surfaces or bedrock cracks, damage which
refers to loss of life or injury, or damage to roads. Furthermore, geological survey of requested to update the maps and
create new ones using new data and techniques and advise the people about the proper sitting of houses and restricting
settlement activities in danger areas. GIS models can then yield more accurate estimates of the fault mapping using
more data such as geophysical data.
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Thank You