Learning

Learning
Instructor: Khola Tahir

Types of Learning
Classical • Learning through associations

conditioning
Operant • Learning through consequences
conditioning
Social • Learning through observation
learning
Classical Conditioning
• Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the
capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus.
The process was first described in 1903 by Ivan Pavlov, and it is sometimes called
Pavlovian conditioning in tribute to him.
Pavlov’s
experiment
• Pavlov noticed that the dogs in his
experiments began to anticipate the
presentation of food and would salivate
before being fed - when they heard the click
of the device that was used to present the
meat powder. In order to isolate the cause,
Pavlov paired the sound of a tone with the
presentation of meat powder several times,
then presented the sound of the tone alone
(without meat powder). What do you think
happened next?
• The dog reacted to the sound of the tone even
without the presentation of meat powder. In other
words, Pavlov demonstrated that learned
associations were formed by events in the
organism’s environment.
At first, the bell tone is a neutral stimulus that does not cause
the dog to drool.
The meat powder is an unconditioned stimulus that elicits the
unconditioned response.
When the neutral stimulus (bell) is paired with the
presentation of meat powder, the unconditioned response to
the meat powder causes the dog to drool.
After conditioning (pairing of neutral stimulus with
unconditioned stimulus), the neutral stimulus becomes a
conditioned stimulus, and the bell alone can elicit the response
of salivation.
It’s possible for emotional responses, such as fear and anxiety,
to develop through the process of classical conditioning. Take 5
minutes and come up with an example of how your fears are
maintained/conditioned?
Extinction
• Extinction is the process by which the association between the
unconditioned stimulus (meat powder) and conditioned stimulus
(bell ringing) is broken.
• When the bell is presented enough times without being paired with
meat, the response extinguishes.
Spontaneous Recovery
• Spontaneous recovery is a phenomenon discovered by Pavlov in
which an extinguished conditioned stimulus suddenly elicits a
conditioned response again when there is a period of time between
trials in a classical conditioning experiment.
• The CR this time is weakened and eventually re-extinguishes, though

after another “rest” interval, a weaker spontaneous recovery occurs.
Stimulus Generalizations –
Little Albert
• John Watson is referred to as the ‘father of modern
behaviorism’ and was influenced by Pavlov’s work.
• Primarily concerned with the control and prediction of
behavior
• John B. Watson, the founder of behaviorism,
conducted an influential early study of generalization.
• Watson and a colleague, Rosalie Rayner, examined the
generalization of conditioned fear in an 11-month-old
boy, known in the annals of psychology as “Little
Albert.”Watson and Rayner conditioned Little Albert to
show fear of the CS (a rat). Little Albert then
generalized his fear to a number of furry objects,
including a rabbit, a fur coat, and Watson wearing a
Santa Claus mask.
Operant Conditioning
• In the 1930s, this kind of learning was christened operant conditioning by B. F. Skinner
(1938, 1953, 1969). The term was derived from his belief that in this type of
responding, an organism “operates” on the environment instead of simply reacting to
stimuli. Learning occurs because responses come to be influenced by the
consequences that follow them. Thus, operant conditioning is a form of learning
in which voluntary responses come to be controlled by their consequences.
• Reinforcements tend to increase the
likelihood of the behavior to occur in the
Reinforcem future.
ent
Acquisition and
Shaping
• In operant conditioning, as in classical conditioning, acquisition
refers to the initial stage of learning some pattern of
responding.
• Operant conditioning is usually established through a gradual

process called shaping, which involves the reinforcement of
closer and closer approximations of a desired response.
• Shaping is necessary when an organism does not, on its own,

emit the desired response.
• For example, when a rat is first placed in a Skinner box, it may

not press the lever at all. In this case the experimenter begins
shaping lever-pressing behavior by reinforcing the rat whenever
it moves toward the lever.
Extinction
• Extinction in operant conditioning is the process by which the
association between response and contingency is broken.
• The most efficient means of unpairing a response and contingency is

to stop reinforcing the operant response - to not present food when
the bar is pressed, for example.
• Since responses are graphed cumulatively, the line never goes down -
when a response is extinguished, the line flattens.
Positive V/s Negative
Reinforcement
Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement
• Positive reinforcement • Negative reinforcement
occurs when a response is occurs when a response is
strengthened because it is strengthened because it is
followed by the followed by the removal of
presentation of a an aversive (unpleasant)
rewarding stimulus stimulus.
•In positive reinforcement, a
response leads to the
presentation of a rewarding
stimulus. In negative
reinforcement, a response
leads to the removal of an
aversive stimulus.
•Both types of reinforcement
involve favorable
consequences and both have
the same effect on behavior:
The organism’s tendency to
emit the reinforced response
is strengthened.
Schedules of Reinforcement
• A schedule of reinforcement determines which occurrences of a specific response result in
presentation of a reinforcer. The simplest schedule is continuous reinforcement.
• Continuous reinforcement occurs when every instance of a designated response is
reinforced.
• Intermittent reinforcement, or partial reinforcement, occurs when a designated response
is reinforced only some of the time.
• A fixed-ratio schedule entails giving a reinforcer after a fixed number of non-reinforced
responses. Example: A student who gets money for every fifth “A” she receives on a test is
an example of a fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement.
• A variable ratio schedule entails giving a reinforcer after a variable number of non-
reinforced responses. Example: playing slot machines is based on variable-ratio
reinforcement as the number of non-winning responses varies greatly before each time
the machine pays out.
Concept Check!
• Positive or Negative Reinforcement?
• A toddler begins to cry in a toy store.

The toddler’s mother gives her a toy
to quiet her down.
• Next time they go to the store,

the child starts crying again.
Aversive Conditioning
• Aversive conditioning is an aspect of operant conditioning that deals
with unpleasant stimuli and how we learn to stay away from them.
• Avoidance is a bit more complicated. It involves a stimulus, usually a
light or bell, that signals the onset of the aversive stimulus
Observational Learning
• ALBERT BANDURA
• “Most human behavior is
learned by observation through
modeling.”
Cont’d
• Observational learning occurs when an organism’s response is
influenced by the observation of others, who are called models.
• Albert Bandura investigated observational learning extensively, and

identified four key processes in observational learning: attention,
retention, reproduction, and motivation.
• Attention. To learn through observation, you must pay
attention to another person’s behavior and its consequences.
• Retention. You may not have occasion to use an observed
response for weeks, months, or even years. Hence, you must
store a mental representation of what you have witnessed in
your memory.
• Reproduction. Enacting a modeled response depends on
your ability to reproduce the response by converting your
stored mental images into overt behavior.
• Motivation. Finally, you are unlikely to reproduce an
observed response unless you are motivated to do so. Your
motivation depends on whether you encounter a situation in
which you believe that the response is likely to pay off for you.

Learning

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Learning

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Learning

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Learning

Instructor: Khola Tahir

Classical • Learning through associations

• The CR this time is weakened and eventually re-extinguishes, though

• Operant conditioning is usually established through a gradual

• Shaping is necessary when an organism does not, on its own,

• For example, when a rat is first placed in a Skinner box, it may

• The most efficient means of unpairing a response and contingency is

• A toddler begins to cry in a toy store.

• Next time they go to the store,

• Albert Bandura investigated observational learning extensively, and

You might also like