Chapter 7

Sampling and Sampling Distributions

 Learning Objectives
• In this chapter, you learn:
- To distinguish between different sampling
methods
- The concept of the sampling distribution
- To compute probabilities related to the
sample mean and the sample proportion
- The importance of the Central Limit Theorem
 Why Sample?
• Selecting a sample is less time-consuming
than selecting every item in the population
(census).
• Selecting a sample is less costly than selecting
every item in the population.
• An analysis of a sample is less cumbersome
and more practical than an analysis of the
entire population
A Sampling Process Begins With A Sampling
Frame
• The sampling frame is a listing of items that
make up the population
• Frames are data sources such as population
lists, directories, or maps
• Inaccurate or biased results can result if a
frame excludes certain portions of the
population
• Using different frames to generate data can
lead to dissimilar conclusions
Types of Samples
Types of Samples: Nonprobability Sample

• In a nonprobability sample, items included

are chosen without regard to their probability
of occurrence.
- In convenience sampling, items are selected
based only on the fact that they are easy,
inexpensive, or convenient to sample.
- In a judgment sample, you get the opinions
of preselected experts in the subject matter
 Types of Samples: Probability Sample
• In a probability sample, items in the sample are chosen on
the basis of known probabilities.
Probability Sample: Simple Random Sample

• Every individual or item from the frame has

an equal chance of being selected.
• Selection may be with replacement (selected
individual is returned to frame for possible
reselection) or without replacement (selected
individual isn’t returned to the frame).
• Samples obtained from table of random
numbers or computer random number
generators.
Selecting a Simple Random Sample Using A
Random Number Table
 Probability Sample: Systematic Sample
• Decide on sample size: n
• Divide frame of N individuals into groups of k individuals:
k=N/n
• Randomly select one individual from the 1st group
• Select every kth individual thereafter
 Probability Sample: Stratified Sample
• Divide population into two or more subgroups (called strata) according to
some common characteristic
• A simple random sample is selected from each subgroup, with sample
sizes proportional to strata sizes
• Samples from subgroups are combined into one
• This is a common technique when sampling population of voters,
stratifying across racial or socio-economic lines.
 Probability Sample Cluster Sample
• Population is divided into several “clusters,” each representative of the
population
• A simple random sample of clusters is selected
• All items in the selected clusters can be used, or items can be chosen
from a cluster using another probability sampling technique
• A common application of cluster sampling involves election exit polls,
where certain election districts are selected and sampled.
 Probability Sample: Comparing Sampling
Methods
• Simple random sample and Systematic sample
- Simple to use
- May not be a good representation of the population’s
underlying characteristics
• Stratified sample
- Ensures representation of individuals across the entire
population
• Cluster sample
- More cost effective
- Less efficient (need larger sample to acquire the same level of
precision)
 Evaluating Survey Worthiness
• What is the purpose of the survey?
• Is the survey based on a probability sample?
Coverage error – appropriate frame?
• Nonresponse error – follow up
• Measurement error – good questions elicit
good responses
• Sampling error – always exists
 Types of Survey Errors
• Coverage error or selection bias
- Exists if some groups are excluded from the frame and have
no chance of being selected
• Non response error or bias
- People who do not respond may be different from those who
do respond
• Sampling error
- Variation from sample to sample will always exist
• Measurement error
- Due to weaknesses in question design, respondent error, and
interviewer’s effects on the respondent (“Hawthorne effect”)
Types of Survey Errors
 Sampling Distributions
• A sampling distribution is a distribution of all of the
possible values of a sample statistic for a given size
sample selected from a population.
• For example, suppose you sample 50 students from
your college regarding their mean GPA. If you
obtained many different samples of 50, you will
compute a different mean for each sample. We are
interested in the distribution of all potential mean
GPA we might calculate for any given sample of 50
students.
Developing a Sampling Distribution
• Assume there is a population …
• Population size N=4
• Random variable, X, is age of individuals
• Values of X: 18, 20, 22, 24 (years)
Developing a Sampling Distribution
• Summary Measures for the Population
Distribution:
Developing a Sampling Distribution
Now consider all possible samples of size n=2
Developing a Sampling Distribution
• Sampling Distribution of All Sample Means
Developing a Sampling Distribution
• Summary Measures of this Sampling
Distribution:
Comparing the Population Distribution to the
Sample Means Distribution
 Sample Mean Sampling Distribution:
Standard Error of the Mean
• Different samples of the same size from the same population
will yield different sample means
• A measure of the variability in the mean from sample to
sample is given by the Standard Error of the Mean: (This
assumes that sampling is with replacement or sampling is
without replacement from an infinite population)
•

• Note that the standard error of the mean decreases as the

sample size increase
 Sample Mean Sampling Distribution: If the
Population is Normal
• If a population is normally distributed with
mean μ and standard deviation σ, the
sampling distribution of is also normally
distributed with
Z-value for Sampling Distribution of the
Mean
Sampling Distribution Properties
Sampling Distribution Properties
 Determining An Interval Including A Fixed
Proportion of the Sample Means
• Find a symmetrically distributed interval around µ
that will include 95% of the sample means when µ =
368, σ = 15, and n = 25.
• Since the interval contains 95% of the sample means
5% of the sample means will be outside the interval
• Since the interval is symmetric 2.5% will be above the
upper limit and 2.5% will be below the lower limit.
• From the standardized normal table, the Z score with
2.5% (0.0250) below it is -1.96 and the Z score with
2.5% (0.0250) above it is 1.96.
Determining An Interval Including A Fixed
Proportion of the Sample Means
 Sample Mean Sampling Distribution: If the
Population is not Normal
• We can apply the Central Limit Theorem:
- Even if the population is not normal,
- …sample means from the population will be
approximately normal as long as the sample
size is large enough.
Central Limit Theorem
Sample Mean Sampling Distribution: If the
Population is not Normal
 How Large is Large Enough?
• For most distributions, n > 30 will give a
sampling distribution that is nearly normal 
• For fairly symmetric distributions, n > 15 will
usually give a sampling distribution is almost
normal
• For normal population distributions, the
sampling distribution of the mean is always
normally distributed
 Example
• Suppose a population has mean μ = 8 and
standard deviation σ = 3. Suppose a random
sample of size n = 36 is selected.
• What is the probability that the sample mean
is between 7.8 and 8.2?
Example
Example
Population Proportions
Sampling Distribution of p
Z-Value for Proportions
 Example
• If the true proportion of voters who support
Proposition A is π = 0.4, what is the probability
that a sample of size 200 yields a sample
proportion between 0.40 and 0.45?
 Example
• if π = 0.4 and n = 200, what is P(0.40 ≤ p ≤
0.45) ?
 Example
• if π = 0.4 and n = 200, what is P(0.40 ≤ p ≤
0.45) ?
 Chapter Summary
• Discussed probability and nonprobability samples
• Described four common probability samples
• Examined survey worthiness and types of survey
errors
• Introduced sampling distributions
• Described the sampling distribution of the mean
• For normal populations  Using the Central Limit
Theorem
• Described the sampling distribution of a proportion
• Calculated probabilities using sampling distributions