Differential calculus

We will focus on differential calculus and related concepts like limits and
continuity. Some of the topics covered are,
•Limits
•Derivatives
•Applications of Derivatives
•Integrals
 Limits
• Limits in maths are defined as the values that a
function approaches the output for the given input
values. Limits play a vital role in calculus and
mathematical analysis and are used to define integrals,
derivatives, and continuity. It is used in the analysis
process, and it always concerns the behavior of the
function at a particular point. The limit of a sequence is
further generalized in the concept of the limit of a
topological net and related to the limit and direct limit
in the theory category.
 Integrals
• Generally, the integrals are classified into two types namely,
definite and indefinite integrals. For definite integrals, the upper
limit and lower limits are defined properly.
Whereas indefinite integrals are expressed without limits, and it
will have an arbitrary constant while integrating the function.
Let us discuss the definition and representation of limits of the
function, with properties and examples in detail.
 Limits
• Limits in maths are unique real numbers. Let us consider a real-
valued function “f” and the real number “c”, the limit is
It normally
is read asdefined as of f of x, as x approaches c equals L”. The
“the limit
“lim” shows the limit, and fact that function f(x) approaches the
limit L as x approaches c is described by the right arrow.
 Limits and Functions
• A function may approach two different limits. One where the
variable approaches its limit through values larger than the limit
and the other where the variable approaches its limit through
values smaller than the limit. In such a case, the limit is not
defined but the right and left-hand limits exist.
Right and Left-hand limits
Properties of Limits
Special Rules
 Limits of Functions and Continuity
• Limits of the function and continuity of the function are closely
related to each other. Functions can be continuous or
discontinuous. For a function to be continuous, if there are small
changes in the input of the function then must be small
changes in the output.
• In elementary calculus, the condition f(X) →λ as x → a means
that the number f(x) can be made to lie as close as we like to
the number λ as long we take the number unequal to the
number a but close enough to a. Which shows that f(a) might
be very far from λ and there is no need for f(a) even to be
defined. The very important result we use for the derivation of
function is: f'(a) of a given function f at a number a can be
 Limits of Complex Functions

Q. 1
• Using the limit formula, find the value of lim (x → 2) x2+5
=9
Q. 2
Find the value of: lim(x→0) 3x3+4x+5.
=5
 Derivatives
• A derivative in calculus is the rate of change of a quantity y with
respect to another quantity x. It is also termed the differential
coefficient of y with respect to x. Differentiation is the process
of finding the derivative of a function.
• Let us learn what exactly a derivative means in calculus and
how to find it along with rules and examples.
 Meaning of Derivatives in Calculus
• The derivative of a function f(x) is usually represented by d/dx
(f(x)) (or) df/dx (or) Df(x) (or) f'(x). Let us see what a derivative
technically means. Consider a curve of function f(x) and let two
points on it be (x, f(x)) and ((x + h), f(x + h)). Then the slope of
the secant line through these points is given by [f(x + h) -
f(x)]/(x + h - x) = [f(x + h) - f(x) / h. See the figure below and
observe that when the distance between two points is closely
equal to 0 (i.e., as h approaches 0), the second point overlaps
the original point and the secant line becomes the tangent line.
 Slope of the tangent
• In calculus, the slope of the
tangent line is referred to as
the derivative of the function.
i.e.,
The derivative of the function, f
'(x) = Slope of the tangent =
limh→0 [f(x + h) - f(x) / h.
This formula is popularly known as
the "limit definition of the
derivative" (or) "derivative by
using the first principle".
 Interpretation of Derivatives
• The derivative of a function f(x) in math is denoted by f'(x) and can be
contextually interpreted as follows:
• The derivative of a function at a point is the slope of the tangent drawn to that
curve at that point.
• It also represents the instantaneous rate of change at a point on the function.
• The velocity of a particle is found by finding the derivative of the displacement
function.
• The derivatives are used to optimize (maximize/minimize) a function.
• They are also used to find the intervals where the function is
increasing/decreasing as well as the intervals where the function is concave
up/down.
• Thus, whenever we see the phrases like "slope/gradient", "rate of change",
"velocity (given the displacement)", "maximize/minimize" etc then it means
that the concept of derivatives is involved.
 Derivative of a Function Using
the First Principle
• The derivative of a function can be obtained by the limit definition of
derivative which is f'(x) = limh→0 [f(x + h) - f(x) / h. This process is
known as the differentiation by the first principle. Let f(x) = x 2 and we
will find its derivative using the above derivative formula. Here, f(x +
h) = (x + h)2 as we have f(x) = x2. Then the derivative of f(x) is,
f '(x) = limh→0 [(x + h)2 - x2] / h
= limh→0 [ x2 + 2xh + h2 - x2] / h
= limh→0 [ 2xh + h2] / h
= limh→0 [ h(2x + h) ] / h
= limh→0 (2x + h)
= 2x + 0
= 2x
 Derivative Formulas in Calculus
• Thus, the derivative of x2 is 2x. But it may be difficult to use this
limit definition to find the derivatives of complex functions.
Thus, there are some derivative formulas (of course, which are
derived from the above limit definition) that we can use readily
in the process of differentiation.

The three basic derivatives of the algebraic, logarithmic /

exponential and trigonometric functions are derived from the first
principle of differentiation and are used as standard
derivative formulas. They are as follows.
 Power Rule of Derivatives
• By using the above example, the derivative of
x2 is 2x. Similarly, we can prove that the
derivative of x3 is 3x2, the derivative of x4 is 4x3,
and so on. Power rule generalizes this and it is
stated as d/dx (xn) = n xn - 1.
 Derivatives of Log/Exponential
Functions
• The derivative of ln x is, d/dx (ln x) = 1/x
• The derivative of log x is, d/dx (loga x) = 1/(x ln a)
• The derivative of e^x is, d/dx (ex) = ex
• The derivative of a^x is, d/dx (ax) = ax ln a
 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

• Here are the

derivatives of trigonometric fu
nctions
.
•If y = sin x, y' = cos x
•If y = cos x, y' = -sin x
•If y = tan x, y' = sec2 x
•If y = cot x, y' = -cosec2 x
•If y = sec x, y' = sec x tan x
•If y = cosec x, y' = -cosec x
cot x
 Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

• Here are the

derivatives of inverse trigono
metric functions
.
 Inverse Trig Derivatives
• The derivative of inverse sine is, d/dx (sin-1x) = 1/√(1-
x2)
• The derivative of inverse cosine is, d/dx (cos-1x) =
-1/√(1-x2)
• The derivative of inverse tan is, d/dx (tan-1x) = 1/(1 +
x2)
• The derivative of inverse cot is, d/dx (cot-1x) = -1/(1 +
x2)
• The derivative of inverse cosec is, d/dx (csc-1x) = -1/ [|x|
√(x2 - 1) ], x ≠ 1, -1, 0
• The derivative of inverse sec is, d/dx (sec-1x) = 1/ [|x|
 Fundamental Rules of Derivatives
• The following are the fundamental rules of derivatives. Let us discuss
them in detail.
• Power Rule: By this rule, if y = xn , then dy/dx = n x n-1 . Example: d/dx
(x5) = 5x4.
• Sum/Difference Rule: The derivative process can be distributed over
addition/subtraction. i.e., dy/dx [u ± v]= du/dx ± dv/dx.
• Product Rule: The product rule of derivatives states that if a function is
a product of two functions, then its derivative is the derivative of the
second function multiplied by the first function added to the derivative
of the first function multiplied by the second function. dy/dx [u × v] = u ·
dv/dx + v · du/dx. If y = x5 ex , we have y' = x5 . ex + ex . 5x4 = ex (x5 + 5x4)
• Quotient Rule: The quotient rule of derivatives states that d/dx (u/v) =
(v · du/dx - u · dv/dx)/ v2
 Fundamental Rules of Derivatives
• Constant multiple Rule: The constant multiple rule of
derivatives states that d/d=-x [c(f(x)] = c · d/dx f(x).
i.e., the constant which when multiplied by a function,
comes out of the differentiation process. For example,
d/dx (5x2) = 5 d/dx (x2) = 5(2x) = 10 x.
• Constant Rule: The constant rule of derivatives states
that the derivative of any constant is 0. If y = k, where
k is a constant, then dy/dx = 0. Suppose y = 4, y' = 0.
This rule directly follows from the power rule.
 Derivatives of Composite
Functions (Chain Rule)
• If f and g are differentiable functions in their domain, then f(g(x)) is
also differentiable. This is known as the chain rule of differentiation
used for composite functions. (fog)'(x) = f'[(g(x)] g'(x). This also can
be written as "if y = f(u) and u = g(x) , then dy/dx = dy/du · du/dx.
• For example, consider y = tan2x. This is a composite function. We can
write this function as y = u2, where u = tan x. Then
• dy/du = 2u
• du/dx = d/dx (tan x) = sec2x
• By the chain rule,
• dy/dx = dy/du · du/dx
• = 2u · sec2x
• = 2 tan x sec 2 x
 Derivatives of Implicit Functions
• In equations where y as a function of x cannot be explicitly
defined by the variables x and y, we use implicit differentiation.
If f(x, y) = 0, then differentiate on both sides with respect to x
and group the terms containing dy/dx at one side, and then
solve for dy/dx.
• For example, 2x + y = 12
• d/dx(2x + y) = d/dx(0)
• 2 + dy/dx = 0
• dy/dx = -2
 Parametric Derivatives
• In a function, we may have the dependent variables x and y
which are dependent on the third independent variable. If x =
f(t) and y = g(t), then derivative is calculated as dy/dx =
f'(x)/g'(x). Suppose, if x = 4 + t2 and y = 4t2 -5t4 , then we find
dy/dx as follows.
• dx/ dt = 2t and dy/dt = 8t -20t3
• dy/dx = (dy/dt)/(dx/dt)
• dy/dx = (8t -20t3 )/2t
• = 2t (4 - 10t2 ) / 2t
• dy/dx = 4 - 10t2
 Higher-order Derivatives
• We can find the successive derivatives of a function and obtain
the higher-order derivatives. If y is a function, then its first
derivative is dy/dx. The second derivative is d/dx (dy/dx) which
also can be written as d2y/dx2. The third derivative is d/dx
(d2y/dx2) and is denoted by d3y/dx3 and so on.
• Alternatively, the first, second, and third derivatives of f(x) can
be written as f'(x), f''(x), and f'''(x). For higher order derivatives,
we write the number in brackets as the exponent. Suppose y =
4x3, we get the successive derivatives as follows. y' = 12x2 , y''
= 24 x and y''' = 24, y(4)= 0.
 Partial Derivatives
• If u = f(x,y) we can find the partial derivative of with respect to
y by keeping x as the constant or we can find the partial
derivative with respect to x by keeping y as the constant.
Suppose f(x, y) = x3 y2 , the partial derivatives of the function
are:
• ∂f/∂x(x3 y2) = 3x2y and
• ∂f/∂y(x3 y2) = x3 2y
• Further, we can find the second-order partial derivatives also
like ∂2f/∂x2, ∂2f/∂y2, ∂2f/∂x ∂y, and ∂2f/∂y ∂x.
 Finding Derivative Using Logarithmic
Differentiation
• Sometimes, the functions are
too complex to find the
derivatives (or) one function
might be raised to another
function like y = f(x)g(x). In such
cases, we can take log (or) ln
on both sides, apply log rules,
and then differentiate on both
sides to get dy/dx. This
process is known as
logarithmic differentiation in
calculus.
 Finding Derivative Using
Logarithmic Differentiation
• Example: Find the derivative of y = xx.
• Solution:
• Applying ln on both sides,
• ln y = ln xx
• ln y = x ln x
• Taking derivative on both sides,
• 1/y dy/dx = x (1/x) + ln x (1) (by chain rule on left side and
product rule on right side)
• 1/y dy/dx = 1 + ln x
• dy/dx = y (1 + ln x) = xx (1 + ln x)
 Maxima/Minima by Using Derivatives
• The concept of slope, and hence the derivatives, is used to find
the maximum or minimum value of a function. There are two
tests that use derivatives and are used to find the
maxima/minima of a function. They are
• first derivative test
• second derivative test
 First Derivative Test
• We can just use the first derivative to determine the maximum
or minimum by observing the following points:
• f'(x) represents the slope of a tangent line.
• Hence, if f'(x) > 0, the function is increasing, and if f'(x) < 0, the
function is decreasing.
• If f'(x) > 0 is changing to f'(x) < 0 at a point, then the function
has a local maximum at that point.
• If f'(x) < 0 is changing to f'(x) > 0 at a point, then the function
has a minimum at that point.
• Note that f'(x) = 0 at local maximum and local minimum.
 Second Derivative Test
• The second derivative test uses the critical points and the
second derivative to find the maxima/minima. To perform this
test:
• Find the critical points by setting f'(x) = 0.
• Substitute each of these in f''(x). If f''(x) < 0, then the function
is maximum at that point and if f''(x)>0, then the function is
minimum at that point.
• If f''(x) = 0, the function neither has maxima nor minima at that
point, and in this case, it is known as the point of inflection.
Second Derivative Test
 Important Notes on Derivatives
Calculus:
• A derivative of a function is the rate of change of one
quantity over the other.
• Derivative of any continuous function that is
differentiable on an interval [a, b] is derived using the
first principle of differentiation using the limits.
• If f(x) is given, then its derivative is, f'(x) = lim h→0 [f(x +
h) - f(x) / h.
• Every differentiable function is continuous but the
converse may not be true.
 Examples of Derivatives
• Example 1.Find the derivative of the curve y = [(x+3) (x+2)]/x2 at the
point (3,0).
Answer: The derivative y = [(x+3) (x+2)]/x2 at the point (3,0) is -
1.
• Example 2. Suppose the position of an object after t hours is
given by g(x) = x/(x+1), then determine if the object is moving
to the right or left at t = 10 hours.
Answer: To the right side.
• Example 3. What is the equation of the tangent line to f(x) =
x2 + 5x at x = 4?
Answer: The equation of the tangent line to f(x) = x2 + 5x at x =
4 is y = 13x -16