Physics of

sight
REFRACTION THROUGH LENSES
Objectives
Use ray diagrams to determine location,
size, orientation, and nature of the
images formed by simple lenses.
Use the thin-lens equations to determine
location, size, orientation, and nature of
the images formed by simple lenses
Describe, explain aberration of lenses:
Spherical and chromatic; and they can be
corrected.
 Refraction through
lenses
Principal axis(PA); a line through the
midpoint of a lens.
Converging(convex) lens : converges light
rays traveling parallel to its principal axis.
◦ thick across their middle and thin at their upper
and lower edges.
Diverging(concave) lens: diverges light
rays traveling parallel to its principal axis.
◦ thin across their middle and thick at their upper
and lower edges.
Terminology
Optical centre: part of the lens through
which a ray of light passes without
deviating
Principal focus (focal point); Point on
the PA
◦ to which rays of light which are parallel
and close to PA converge after refraction
◦ From which rays of light which are parallel
and close to the PA appear to diverge after
refraction.
Principal focus (focal point)
Terminology
Focal length: Distance from the
centre of the lens to the focal point.
Depends on refractive indices
Lenses have different refractive
indices for different wavelengths of
light, the focal length will be
dependent on refractive index
because different wavelengths of
light will converge/diverge differently.
 Terminology
Power of the lens; defined by
1
Power 
Focal length of the lens (m)
◦ Units are per meter (m-1) or dioptre
(D).
◦ Positive for converging lens and
negative for diverging lens.
 Image formation: ray
diagrams
When an object is placed in front of a lens, light rays
coming from the object fall on the lens and get refracted.
The refracted rays produce an image at a point where
they intersect or appear to intersect each other.
•A real image can be shown on a screen
•Virtual image cannot be shown on a
screen
The image formation by lenses is usually shown by a ray
diagram. To construct a ray diagram at least two rays
whose paths after refraction through the lens is known
are needed.
Image formation: ray
diagrams
Any two of the following rays are usually
considered while constructing ray
diagrams for convex lens.
◦ A ray of light passing through the optical
centre of the lens travels straight without
suffering any deviation.
◦ An incident ray parallel to the principal axis
after refraction passes through the focus.
◦ An incident ray passing through the focus of a
lens emerges parallel to the principal axis
after refraction.
•AImage formation:
ray of light ray
passing through diagrams
the optical centre
of the lens travels straight without suffering any
deviation. This holds TRUE only in the case of a
thin lens. lens
 Image formation: ray diagrams
•An incident ray parallel to the principal axis
after refraction passes through the focus.
 Image formation: ray diagrams
•An incident ray passing through the focus of
a lens emerges parallel to the principal axis
after refraction.
 Image formation: ray diagrams
When the Object is Placed Between
F1 and O

The image is - The nature of images Application

formed
•Formed behind the objectby a convex Magnifying lens
•virtual lens depends upon the (simple
•erect distance of the object microscope), eye
•magnified
from the optical centre piece of many
of the lens. instruments.
 Image formation: ray diagrams
en the Object is Placed at F1

The nature of images

The image is -
formed by a convex lens
•formed at infinity Application
•real depends upon the Search/spot lights,
•inverted distance of the object eyepiece telescope
•magnified from the optical centre
of the lens.
Image formation: ray diagrams
When the Object is Placed Between F1 and
2F1

The nature of
The image is images formed by a
•formed beyond 2F2convex lens depends Application
•real upon the distance of Projector,
•inverted the object from the
•magnified optical centre of the
objective of
lens. microscope,
Image formation: ray diagrams
When the Object is placed at
2F1

The image is - The nature of images Application

•formed at 2F2 formed by a convex
•real lens depends upon the Camera,
•inverted distance of the object terrestrial
•same size as the object
from the optical telescopes
centre of the lens.
 Image formation: ray diagrams
the Object is Placed Beyond 2F1

The image is - The nature of images

•formed between F2 formed
and 2F2 by a convex Application
•real lens depends upon the objective
•inverted distance of the object lens of a
•diminished from the optical telescope
centre of the lens.
 Image formation: ray diagrams
When the Object is placed at Infinity: when
the object is at infinity, the rays coming
from it are parallel to each other.

The image is - The nature of images

•formed at F2 formed by a convex
•inverted lens depends upon the Application
•real distance of the object Lens of telescope
•highly diminished
from the optical
centre of the lens.
 Image formation: Ray diagrams
,concave lens
The following rays are considered for
constructing ray diagrams for locating the
images formed by a concave lens.
An incident ray of light coming from the
object parallel to the principal axis of a
concave lens after refraction appears to
come from its focus.
An incident ray of light passing through
Tothe optical a
obtain center
realcomes
image outwith
of thealens
without any deviation.
concave lens, the object needs to
be virtual.
Image formation: Ray diagrams ,concave len
An incident ray of light coming from the
object parallel to the principal axis of a
concave lens after refraction appears to
come from its focus.
Image formation: Ray diagrams ,concave len
An incident ray of light passing through the
optical center comes out of the lens without
any deviation

•A concave lens always gives a virtual, erect

and diminished image whatever may be the
position of the object.
 Image formation: Ray diagrams ,concave len
en the Object is at Infinity

The image is -
•formed at F1
•A concave lens always
•erect gives a virtual, erect and
•virtual diminished image
•diminished
whatever may be the
Image formation: Ray diagrams ,concave len
When the Object is Placed between
O and F

The image is - •A concave lens

•formed between O and F1
•erect
always gives a virtual,
•virtual erect and diminished
•diminished image whatever may
be the position of the
object.
 Image formation: Ray diagrams ,concave len
e Object is placed at any Position between O and infi

The image is - •A concave lens always

•formed between O and F1
•erect gives a virtual, erect and
•virtual diminished image
•diminished whatever may be the
position of the object.
Uses of concave lens
•It is used in spectacles for
correcting myopia.
•Along with convex lens it
is used to overcome
defects like chromatic
aberration and spherical
aberration.
 Lens formula
The relationship between distance of the
object (u), distance of the image (v) and focal
length 1
(f) of the
1 lens
1 is called lens formula or
 
lens equation.
f u v
f  focal length
u object distance
v image distance
Points to be remembered while using the lens
formula. The values of the known parameters
should be used with their proper sign as per
the sign convention. No sign should be
Lens formula
The focus of a convex lens is
called a real focus, that of a
diverging lens is a virtual one.
Linear magnification of an image
is given by the following :
Image size
Magnification 
Object size
Image distance

Object distance
v hi
 
u ho
Practice question
A converging lens of focal
length 10cm is used to form an
image of an object placed 5cm
in front of the lens. Draw a ray
diagram to locate the image.
Determine the nature of the
image from the diagram and
find the magnification.
Practice question
Find the position, size, and nature
of the image formed by a diverging
lens of focal length 30cm, if a 2cm
high object is placed at the
following distances from the lens
a) 80cm
b) 50cm
c) 15cm
Check with ray diagrams.
Aberration of lenses
“Aberration" means a deviation
from the normal course,
blurring of image”
There are two types of
aberrations of lenses:
•Spherical Aberration
•Chromatic Aberration
Spherical aberration
For a thick lens made from spherical
surfaces, the focal distance will differ for
different rays, and this change is called
spherical aberration.
Occurs when the marginal (peripheral)
and para-axial rays are unable to come
to focus at the same point on the
principal axis, through the lens.
◦ light passing through the lens center is focused at a
different distance to light passing through the outer portion
of the lens.
This diagram illustrates how marginal and
para-axial rays meet the principal axis.
 Aberration of lenses
If a screen was to be kept at E, then
a point image would have been
formed at Fm due to the marginal
rays. Similarly, if the screen had
been kept at F, a point image would
have been formed by the para-axial
rays at Fp.
When both the marginal and para-
axial rays are considered together,
the image formed is highly blurred.
Between F and F there is a point
 Chromatic aberration
Recall: The absolute refractive index for a
given material varies with the color or
wavelength of light.
◦ This disables all the colors of light to converge or
diverge to a single point.
Chromatic aberration is the defect or
aberration of lenses which results in different
wavelengths or colors of light being focused
at different distances.
◦ Because different color have different values of
refractive indices for the same material. In other
words, comes about due to dispersion of light
 Chromatic aberration
It occurs due to the dependence of focal
length on the refractive index. Since lens has
different refractive indices for different
wavelengths of light. So, the focal length for
various colors of light are also different. The
image formed will have colored edges.
 Chromatic aberration
Chromatic aberration can be
corrected by using an
achromatic doublet which
consists of a powerful convex
lens of low dispersive power
with a weak concave lens of
high dispersive power. The
overall effect of the two is a
converging lens with little
Physics of
sight
THE EYE AND SIGHT
Objectives
Describe and explain image formation by the
human eye.
◦ The basic structure and function of the eye and its
parts.
◦ Accomodation.

Explain defects of the eye: Myopia,

Hypermetropia, Presbyopia, and astigmatism.
Explain how eye defects can be corrected
including calculations of the appropriate
correcting lenses.
The eye and sight
 The eye and sight
• Cornea:
• main focusing element, bends diverging
light rays through the pupil
• Iris:
• A dark colored muscular diaphragm with
the pupil in the middle
• regulates the amount of light entering the
eye by adjusting the pupil size.
• Contracts the pupil for high intensity (or
bright) light, thus decreasing the
amount entering the eye
 The eye and sight
• Pupil:
– aperture in the center of the eyeball
through which light enters the eye
– Bounded by the Iris which controls its
size .
• Lens
• focuses the light to the retina and
creates an image
• held in position by ciliary muscles
which help in changing the curvature
and focal length of the eye lens.
• Retina:
• Image is focused on it .
 Accomodation
•Eye has a fixed image distance: the
distance between the lens and the retina
–If the object distance is changed, the focal
length is adjusted to create a sharp image
–adjustment of the focal length of the lens
enables us to focus on objects at different
distances.
• Accommodation: The ability of the eye to
change its focal length (f).
• The shape of the lens is altered by the ciliary
muscle.
 Accomodation

 Nearby Objects  Distant Objects

• Have a longer image • Have a shorter image distance
distance  Lengthen the focal length
 Shorten the focal length • Ciliary muscles relax
• Ciliary muscles contract • Lens assumes a flatter
• Squeeze the lens into a more (thinner) shape
convex (fat) shape • Cornea is not pushed out =
• Pushes cornea bulge out less curvature
further: greater curvature
Near point
Least distance of distinct vision
(near point): the point nearest to the
eye at which an object is visible
distinctly.
Closest point at which an object can
be brought into focus by the eye
◦ Typically about 25 cm
◦ Decreases with age
FAR POINT
The maximum distance up
to which the normal eye can
see things clearly.
◦ Typically infinity .
◦ Decreases with age.
RANGE OF VISION.
The distance between the near
point and the far point is called
the range of vision
DEFECTS OF THE
VISION
Hypermetropia or long
sightedness
Myopia or short sightedness
Astigmatism
Presbyopia
HYPERMETROPIA
Inability of the eye to focus on NEARBY
objects
Can see distant objects
Close objects are focused BEHIND the retin
Near point farther away from the eye
Causes of Hypermetropia

Shortened eyeball (retina is closer than

normal to the cornea lens system)
Lens can no longer assume highly convex
(fat) shape
◦ Accomodation no longer working
◦ Weakened ciliary muscles
◦ Reduced flexibility of the lens
◦ Common as people age
Correction of
Hypermetropia
Need to refocus the image on the retina
◦ Decrease the focal length of the cornea
lens system
◦ More refraction (more converging power)
Add a converging lens
 Hypermetropia

Hypermetropia correction
MYOPIA

Inability to focus on distant objects

No difficulty focusing on nearby objects
Images of distant objects are formed in
front of the retina
Far point is closer than normal
 Causes of Myopia

Not usually caused by aging

Bulging cornea (greater curvature)
Elongated eyeball (increased distance
between the retina and eye lens)
 Correction of Myopia
Need to refocus the image on the retina
◦ Increase the focal length of the cornea lens
system
◦ Less refraction (Decrease converging power of
the eyelens)
Add a diverging lens
Myopia
 ASTIGMATISM
Vision is blurred due to the inability of the
eye to focus a point object into a sharp
focused image on the retina.
Eyes have different focal lengths in different
planes resulting in distorted images because
light rays are prevented from meeting at one
common focus.
Due to irregular curvature of the lens.
corrected by using cylindrical lenses
◦ Mostly hereditary.
PRESBYOPIA
Caused when the centre of the
eye lens hardens making it
unable to accommodate near
vision
Due to age
Example
1. A farsighted woman cannot
see objects clearly that are
closer to her eye than 60.0
cm. Determine the focal
length and power of the
spectacle lenses that will
enable her to read a book at a
distance of 25.0 cm.
Example 1: Answer
For far sight she needs a converging
lens whose image will be the object of
the eye. This image should be located
on the same side of the lens as the
object i.e. a virtual image. This will
mean a virtual object for the eye.
The real object is a distance 25cm
from the eye, the virtual image
should be located at 60cm
Using
1 1 1
 
f u v
Real object u 25cm
virtual image  v -60cm
1 1 1 60  25
  
f 25 - 60  1500
f 42.86cm
Power of the lens is
1 1
Power   2.33
f ( 0.4289)
Example
2. A nearsighted man cannot clearly
see objects that are beyond 50
cm from his eye. Determine the
focal length and power of the
glasses that will enable him to
clearly see distant objects given
that the eye’s near point is 25cm.
What is the near point when this
lens is worn?
 ANSWER 2
H e needs a diverging lens whose
image of a distant object will be the
eyes virtual object. The image is
therefore virtual. The desired object
1
distance
1 1

is infinity, thus:
f u v
Real object  u 
virtual image  v -50cm
ANSWER 2
1 1 1 1
  
f  - 50  50
f  50cm
The power is :
1 1
  2.0D
f 0.5m
ANSWER 2
An object at the near point
must “seem” to come from the
original near point, therefore
the lens must have a virtual
object at 25cm. This virtual
object is the image of the
object at the new near point.
1 1 1 ANSWER 2
 
f u v
1 1 1
 
u f v
Real object u new near point
virtual image  v -25cm
1 1 1  1 2 1
   
u (-50) - 25  50 50
50cm
 READING
MAGNIFYING GLASS
MICROSCOPE.
With much emphasis on the lens system:
positioning(also why at those position) of objects,
images including types, and magnification.
This is part of your course work and will be
examined.
 BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF
LIGHT
Ultraviolet radiations act on the skin and are effective in the synthesis of
vitamin D.
Ultraviolet radiations also stimulate the production of melanin by
melanocytes, a protective mechanism against further injury.
Amount of absorption of calcium is influenced by the amount of light to which
a person is subjected.
Light is effective in treating jaundice in infants .
Sometimes, interaction of light with some chemicals results in toxic substances
in the body that may produce rash.
This photosensitizing property is beneficial in the treatment of some
skin disorders such as skin cancer, herpes, psoriasis, etc.

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 USES OF LIGHT IN
X-rays
THERAPY
 X-rays are electromagnetic waves of extremely short wavelength
of approximately 0.01 to 1 mµ and of high frequency.
 X-rays have great power of penetration and when passed through
the body, affect a photographic plate and produce a “negative
picture’’ or a “shadowgraph’’. Structures and tissues that allow the
rays to pass through them easily appear dark on the developed film
and that do not allow the rays to pass appear as lighter areas on the
film.
 When the X-rays pass through the body tissues ionization of the
matter occurs and position of the electrons with in the body tissues
changes, producing chemical changes that are destructive to the
cells. Cells of malignant tumors are more susceptible to the effect
than are the normal cell X-rays are useful in the treatment of
superficial lesions of skin cancer and also in irradiating deep lying
tumors of visceral organs.

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 APPLICATION OF LIGHT
PRINCIPLES IN NURSING
Nature of light, which will enable nurses to understand the use of light
in different health care practices.
Refractive errors of the eye and will understand the corrective
measures by using different type of lenses.
Use of light in different diagnostic tools like otoscope, ophthalmoscope,
proctoscope, cytoscope and colonoscope, etc.
Use of light in management of different medical disorders like
treatment of malignancies, skin problems, etc.
Nurses will be able to understand the biological effect of the light on
human body.
Understand the mechanism of the photosensitivity.

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 Reading Assignment
Discuss how the following are used and applied in
therapy
 Visible light in medicine
 Infrared
 Thermography
 Photosensitivity
 Ultraviolet radiation.

Discuss the dangers of light and precautions to be taken when

using or being exposed to light.

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Questions!!

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