9.

1 MENDEL AND LAWS OF

INHERITANCE
MENDEL’S GENETIC STUDY

 Mendel discovered basic principles

of heredity by breeding garden peas
in carefully planned experiments.
Advantages of pea plants

Many varieties with distinct heritable characters

• Character variations = traits
1 • E.g., flower color - (purple/ white)

2 Mating between plants can be controlled.

• Self-fertilize in nature
• Cross-pollination can be done by dusting one plant with pollen from another.

3 Short generation time.

4 Large number of offspring produced from each mating

Source:
http://www.thinksciencemaurer.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/TraitsPeaPlants.jp
g
Figure 14.2
Research method:
crossing pea
plants, Page 320,
Pearson
 LO 3

Explain the Law of Segregation

and Independent Assortment.
9.1.1 Law of Segregation
Mendel’s Result
 True breeding plants
 Plants that produce offspring of the

same variety when they self-

pollinate.
 When true-breeding white and
purple flowered plants were crossed:
◦ All F1 hybrids were purple.
 When F1 hybrids were crossed:
• F2 plants have both purple (705)
and white (224) flowers.
F2 ratio: 3 purple : 1 white.
P Generation
(true-breeding
parents) Purple White
flowers flowers
Hybridization

F1 Generation
(hybrids)
All plants had
purple flowers
Self -
pollination
F2 Generation

705 purple : 224 white

Figure 14.3, page 321, Pearson.

P: PP X pp
(Purple flower) (White flower)
True-breeding True-breeding

Hybridizatio
n

F1: Pp
(Purple flower)
Hybrid

Self-pollination

F2: PP & Pp pp
(Purple flower) (White flower)
 Mendel’s Reasoning
• The heritable factor (gene) for
white flowers did not disappear but
are masked in F1 plants when purple
factor present.
Purple flower - dominant trait
White flower - recessive trait
Reappearance of white in F :
2
 Gene of white flowers had not been
diluted/blended/destroyed.
Mendel’s Explanation
Explanation of 3:1 ratio in F2
offspring.
 4 concepts - related to genes and

chromosomes.
The four concept:

First: Alternative versions of genes account for variations in inherited

characters

Second: for each character, an organism inherits two alleles, one from each
parent

Third: if the two alleles at a locus differ, then one (the dominant allele)
determines the organism’s appearance, and the other (the recessive
allele) has no noticeable effect on appearance

Fourth: (the law of segregation): the two alleles for a heritable character
separate (segregate) during gamete formation and end up in different
gametes
How do we show the combinations?
Possible combinations of sperm &

egg can be shown using

i. Cross diagram.
ii. Punnett square.
Capital letter = dominant allele;
Lowercase letter = recessive
allele.
 P Generation

Phenotype: Purple White

Genotype: flowers flowers
PP pp
Gametes P p

F1 Generation

Phenotype: Purple flowers

Genotype: Pp

Gametes: 1 1
2 2
P p

F1 sperm

P p
F2 Generation

P
F1 eggs PP Pp

p
Pp pp

3 :1

Figure 14.5, page 323, Pearson

 P: pp
PP X
Purple White
(True-breeding) (True-breeding)

Gametes: p p
P P

F1 : Pp Pp X Pp Pp
Purple Purple Purple Purple
(Hybrid) (Hybrid) (Hybrid) (Hybrid)

Gametes: P p P p

F2 : pp
PP Pp Pp

3 Purple 1 white
F2 generation using Punnett’s square

Gametes P p
P PP Pp
Purple Purple
p Pp pp
Purple White
 Mendel derived law of
segregation by using a single
character.
 F offspring produced in cross
1
were monohybrids, =
heterozygous for 1 character.
 Cross between F monohybrids =
1
monohybrid cross.
LO 4
 Determinethe expected
phenotypic and genotypic ratios for
monohybrid and dihybrid crosses
Summary
Generation Phenotypic Genotypic
Ratio Ratio

F1 All Purple All Pp

F2 ¾ purple: ¼ PP : ½ Pp:
¼ white ¼ pp
GENETICS PROBLEMS 1
1. The expressions of the dominant and recessive alleles for
the gene controlling several traits are described in the
chart below along with the letter symbols that represent
each allele.

 Trait Dominant Recessive

 Seed coat color brown (B) white (b)
 Seed coat shape round (R) wrinkled
(r)
 Pod color green (G) yellow (g)
 Height of plant tall (T) short (t)


i. Predict the phenotypic and genotypic ratios of a cross

between
a)a pea plant that is homozygous for brown seeds and a
plant that has white seeds.
b)a heterozygous brown seed plant and a white seed plant.
 ii.Predict the phenotypic and genotypic ratios of the
following crosses:
a) Rr x RR
b) Gg x GG
c) Tt x Tt
d) Rr x Rr
e) A cross involving 2 heterozygous green plants.
f) A cross between a homozygous green plant with a
heterozygous green plant.
g) A cross between a homozygous tall plant with a
short plant.
h) A cross between a white seed plant with a
heterozygous brown seed plant.
9.1.2 Law of Independent Assortment

 Mendel used 2 characters for his

2nd law.
 Crossing 2, true-breeding parents

differing in 2 characters produces

dihybrid F1, heterozygous for
both characters
 Dihybrid cross = cross between

F1 dihybrids
 Law of Independent
Assortment:
“Each pair of alleles
segregates independently of
other pairs of alleles during
gamete formation.”
Law applies only to genes on
different, non-homologous
chromosomes.
Independent Assortment

G g
GY gy

Gy gY
Y y

GgY
 Figure 14.8, page 326, Pearson
P Generation YYRR yyrr

Gametes YR yr

F1 Generation
YyRr

Predictions Hypothesis of Hypothesis of

dependent assortment independent assortment
or Sperm
Predicted
1 YR 1 Yr 1 yR 1 yr
offspring of Sperm 4 4 4 4

F2 generation 1 YR 1 yr
2 2
1
4 YR
YYRR YYRr YyRR YyRr
1
2 YR
YYRR YyRr 1 Yr
Eggs 4
YYRr YYrr YyRr Yyrr
1 yr
Eggs
2
YyRr yyrr 1 yR
4
YyRR YyRr yyRR yyRr
3 1
4 4
1
4 yr
Phenotypic ratio 3:1 YyRr Yyrr yyRr yyrr

9 3 3 1
16 16 16 16

Phenotypic ratio 9:3:3:1

Results

315 108 101 32 Phenotypic ratio approximately 9:3:3:1

 RRYY X rryy
P: (Round, yellow) (Wrinkled, green)
True-breeding True-breeding

Gametes:
RY ry

F1 : RrYy
(Round, yellow)
Dihybrid
Self-fertilization

Dihybrid Cross RrYy X RrYy

Gametes: RY Ry rY ry RY Ry rY ry
F2: Punnett’s Square
Phenotypic Ratio Mendel’s
Observation
9/16 round, yellow 315
(R_Y_)
3/16 round, green (R_yy) 108

3/16 wrinkled, yellow 101

(rrY_)
1/16 wrinkled, green 32
(rryy)

9 : 3 : 3 : 1 = dihybrid ratio
Genotype Genotypic Ratio
RRYY 1/16
RRYy 2/16
RRyy 1/16
RrYY 2/16
RrYy 4/16
Rryy 2/16
rrYY 1/16
rrYy 2/16
rryy 1/16
GENETICS PROBLEM 2
1) Predict the results of a cross between a heterozygous
round, homozygous tall plant and a homozygous round,
short plant. (Tall dominant over short; round dominant over
wrinkled)
 LO 5
• Explain using genetic diagrams to
solve problems involving test
crosses, back crosses and
reciprocal crosses.
9.2 Testcross, Backcross, and
Reciprocal Cross
9.2.1 Test Cross
 Dominant phenotype - homozygous or
heterozygous.
◦ E.g.: Purple colored flower – PP or Pp.
 Plant’s genotype is determined using Test

Cross = crossing an organism of unknown

genotype with a homozygous recessive
individual to determine the unknown
genotype.
 Testcross 1 Testcross 2
P_ x pp P_ x pp
(Purple) (White) (Purple) (White)

Gametes:

P _ p P _ p

Offspring:
Pp _p Pp _p
(Purple) (Purple) (Purple) (White)
P_ is homozygous (PP) P_ is heterozygous (Pp)
since _p is purple (Pp) since _p is white (pp)
Conclusion: Conclusion:
F1 phenotypic ratio=100%, F1 phenotypic ratio = 1:1,unknown
Unknown genotype=homozygous genotype=heterozygous
 Technique
Dominant phenotype, Recessive phenotype,
unknown genotype: known genotype:
PP or Pp? pp

Predictions
Figure 14.7, If purple-flowered or If purple-flowered
parent is PP parent is Pp
page 325,
Sperm Sperm
Pearson
p p p p

P P
Pp Pp Pp Pp
Eggs Eggs
P p
Pp Pp pp pp

Results
or
All offspring purple 12 offspring purple and
1 2 offspring white
Conclusion:
 F1 phenotypic ratio=100%,
unknown
genotype=homozygous
or
 F phenotypic ratio=1:1
1

unknown
genotype=heterozygous
9.3.2 Back Cross
F offspring is mated back to one
1
of the parents (or an individual
genetically similar to its parent) .
 Purpose: to produce offspring with

a genetic identity that is closer to

that of parent.
 Aplication: Used in horticulture and

animal breeding.
Example
Ahomozygous black (BB) female
guinea pig is crossed to a white
(bb) male. An F1 male is back-
crossed to its female parent.
Diagram this cross.
P: BB ♀ x bb ♂
(black) (white)

Gamete : B b

F1 : Bb
♀&♂

F1 backcross : Bb ♂ x BB ♀
(Black male) (Black female parent)

Gamete :
B b B

Backcross BB & Bb
progeny: (Black male & female offspring)
9.3.3 Reciprocal Cross

A cross, with phenotype of

each sex reversed as
compared with original cross.

 Purpose: To test role of parental

sex on inheritance pattern.
 Example:
White colored flower (female) x
Purple colored flower (male)
Reciprocal cross:
White colored flower (male) x
Purple colored flower (female)
 Same result if involve autosomal
traits.
 Different result with sex-linked traits.
GENETICS PROBLEM 3
1) In peas, the allele for tall plant height (T) is dominant over
the allele for short plant height (t). A tall plant (T_) was
crossed with a short pea plant (tt). Of the 95 offspring
that resulted, 55 were tall and 40 were short. Determine
the genotype of the tall parent plant.