2

LINK FORCE METHOD

A SIMPLIFIED APPROACH FOR THE ANALYSIS AND
DESIGN OF TWO-WAY RC JOIST FLOORS HAVING
DIFFERENT CONFIGURATIONS

Teacher

• Prof. Dr. Syed Ali Rizwan

Presenter

• Ahmad Zia (Structural Engineer | DBCG | NESPAK)

LinkedIn Profile: https://www.linkedin.com/in/ahmad-zia-nespak/

FAST, National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, Lahore

Department of Civil Engineering
 PRESENTATION OVERVIEW 3

• Introduction
1.

• Methodology
2.

• Software
3.

• Conclusions
4.

• References
5.
 INTRODUCTION TO LINK FORCE METHOD 4

Z S Makowski: A Pioneer of Space Structures

• Professor Zygmunt Stanislaw Makowski (1922-2005) is a pioneer in the field of
Spatial Structures. He was the Head of the Department of Civil Engineering of
the University of Surrey, in the United Kingdom, for 22 years (from 1962 to
1984). Professor Makowski also created the Space Structures Research
Centre of the University of Surrey in May 1963, and the work of this Centre,
over the years, has won a great deal of international recognition.
• In 1968, Professor Makowski was appointed as the structural consultant to
BOAC and having formed his firm of Z S Makowski and Associates, he was
responsible for the construction of two aircraft hangars at London Airport,
Heathrow, covered with prefabricated diagonal steel grids having a clear span
of 153 metres.

• Initial advancements in the theory and practice of skeletal space structures

have been well documented by Makowski and the pioneering work of the
Space Structures Research Centre of the University of Surrey.
• Originally, skeletal space structure systems were used predominantly as roof
structures—particularly where large spans with load distribution in both
perpendicular directions were desired—to satisfy the basic demands for fast
and economical reconstruction and redevelopment after World War II.
INTRODUCTION TO LINK FORCE METHOD 5
INTRODUCTION TO LINK FORCE METHOD 6
 WAFFLE / GRID / RIBBED SLAB 7

Features:
• Spans: Waffle slabs Waffle slabs are suitable for 30 to 48ft spans and live loads of
80 to 150psf. They carry heavier loads than flat plates and have attractive exposed
ceilings.
• Design: Grid of reinforced concrete ribs supporting a thin slab on top, resembling a
waffle pattern.
• Load Distribution: Transfers loads in two directions (two-way action).
• Formwork: Requires reusable molds or void-forming materials for rib creation (quite
expensive).

Advantages:
• Material Efficiency: Less concrete used compared to solid slabs, reducing dead
weight.
• Large Spans: Supports wider areas with fewer columns, creating open spaces.
• Aesthetics: Exposed grid pattern often used as a design element.

Limitations:
• Construction Complexity: Precise formwork and reinforcement placement increase
labour costs.
• Depth: A thicker system may not suit spaces with height constraints.
• Acoustic Properties: May require sound treatments to reduce echo.
 WAFFLE / GRID / RIBBED SLAB 8

Applications:
• Ideal for auditoriums, parking structures, and commercial buildings needing large,
open spans.
• Used in modern architecture for both structural and aesthetic purposes.

Structural Behavior:
• Stiffness and Strength: Ribs enhance resistance to bending and deflection.
• Material Optimization: Voids reduce concrete volume without compromising load
capacity.

Comparison to Solid Slabs

• Lighter and more cost-efficient for large spans.
• Less suited for rapid construction or where shallow slabs are needed.

Design Standards
• Governed by codes like ACI 318-19 covering reinforcement, analysis, and
construction practices.
• Chapter-8 [Two-way Slabs], Clause 8.8—Nonprestressed two-way joist systems
WAFFLE / GRID / RIBBED SLAB 9

Source: https://archi-monarch.com/waffle-
WAFFLE / GRID / RIBBED SLAB 10

Source: https://archi-monarch.com/waffle-slab/
WAFFLE / GRID / RIBBED SLAB 11
WAFFLE / GRID / RIBBED SLAB 12
WAFFLE / GRID / RIBBED SLAB (EXAMPLES) 13
 INTRODUCTION TO LINK FORCE METHOD 1
4

• Simplified approach to analysing and designing two-way joist RC floors/waffle

slabs.
• Extensively used in RC construction to cover moderate squarish plans
spanning up to 60’ due to excellent and pleasing appearance.
• Exact analysis is complex as they are statically indeterminate.
• Method is an extension of the concepts of Z.S. Makowski.
• According to Makowski, grids of joist floors are pleasing with remarkable
acoustic performance. These could be used for public buildings, theatres,
cinemas and parking garages. Grids are stiff and avoid excessive deflections.
• For symmetrical layouts and symmetrical loadings, analysis can be simplified
using methods applicable to grid frameworks, such as comparing deflections in
a torsion-free structure having simple supports at the boundaries.
• For grids with rigidly connected nodes, the influence coefficient method or
deflection method can be used.
 INTRODUCTION TO LINK FORCE METHOD 15

• Deflections at a node should be the same when determined from either of the
intersecting beams running in orthogonal directions.
• Method is generic and applicable to any layout/loading.
• The method's application results in linear simultaneous equations after using
influence coefficients, and the solution becomes handy after solving equations.
• Torsion effects for ordinary grids supported on all 4 sides are relatively less.
• After neglecting the torsional stiffness of the intersecting beams, external
forces produce only vertical reactive forces acting in the fictitious link between
the intersecting beams running in different directions.
• These vertical fictitious links can be visualized as having very infinitely small
lengths with pin connections at the top and bottom end.
• They serve as connectors to the interconnecting beams at the same level.
 INTRODUCTION TO LINK FORCE METHOD 16

• Axial loads induced in these fictitious links are called

LINK FORCES
• These forms the redundants in Grid Analysis.
A
• Link force at node A is positive if it pushes the upper beam (running in shorter
direction) upward and pushes the lower beams (running in longer direction)
downward.
• Positive link produces compression in the fictitious link where the direction and
magnitude of the link forces are known.
• After the formulation of linear simultaneous equations, the bending moment, shear
forces and deflections of all beams can be determined.
• Makowski states that for square RC layouts, diagonal
grids are more economical due to stiff corner beams
acting as supports for other beams.
 ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES 17

• The total of unknown reaction is equal to the total number of internal nodes.
The same number of equations results from the compatibility requirements of
displacements at any node A.
=
Compatibility Equation
• Numerical values of deflection coefficients can be obtained directly.
• By the Principle of Superposition, the deflection at the joints can be calculated.
• Knowing the reactive forces at all points of interconnections between the
longer and shorter beams, the bending moments can be determined.
• Nodal applied gravity loads equal to P/2 should be considered at nodes in
upper and lower beams respectively to satisfy equilibrium.
• Pick up the maximum shear force and moment for each beam.
• After knowing Mu)max for beams, reinforcement ratio can easily be calculated.
 ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES (Diagonal Grid) 18

• In an open grid framework, it is possible theoretically to arrange the beams in

such a way as to follow the trajectories of the principal stresses.
• Such an arrangement would place the beams where they are most needed.
• Diagonal grids can successfully be applied even to irregular boundaries.
• Fundamental differences between diagonal and rectangular grids are that in
the former, the beams are of varying lengths, and therefore, even if all the
beams have the same flexural stiffness EI, their relative stiffness EI/L varies
very considerably.
• The fact that the corners of a slab are the most highly stressed explains why
the diagonal grids are much superior in their behaviour to the rectangular grids,
in which there are no members at the corners, and why the stress distribution
is so much even in diagonal grids.
 ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES (Diagonal Grid) 19

Differences:
• An upper beam with positive link forces, when reflected about the symmetrical
axis becomes the lower beam, but with the direction of link forces remaining
the same and hence such nodes are treated as negative nodes with negative
link forces.
• Node numbering is to be done carefully such that the beams sloping down to
the right are considered to be the upper beams while those sloping down to the
left are the lower beams.
• Node numbers in the 2nd and 4th quadrants are positive whereas those in the 1st
and 3rd quadrants are negative.
• Nodes on the line of symmetry are Zero.
• Sign convention for the negative nodes will be opposite to that of the positive
nodes already discussed.
ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES (Diagonal Grid) 20
DEFLECTION COEFFICIENTS (Simply supported ends) 21
GRID (Simply supported ends) 22
DEFLECTION COEFFICIENTS (Fixed ends) 23
GRID (Fixed ends) 24
FLOWCHART OF LINK FORCE METHOD 25

Calculation of Load

Setting up of Linear Simultaneous

Equations

Solving Equations Simultaneously

based on deflection compatibility

Calculation of Link forces

Calculation of Moments based on

link & nodal forces

Calculation of reinforcement ratio

Provide Steel based on required

As
 SOFTWARE USED 26

Following software can be used for the

analysis/design of waffle slabs:
 CSI ETABS
https://youtu.be/_Web1WDbY48?si=lT
TwroY9K5RsZPEO
https://youtu.be/VqTJji7yPCQ?si=69T
GfvPS_Tgw8tnR
 CSI SAFE
https://youtu.be/Eti1sQ-yAtY?si=8sniJ
Rvdr9HjqYn8
 Structural analysis/design software
 CONCLUSIONS 27

• In 2-way joist floor RC systems, the torsional stiffness is of little consequence and
can be neglected.
• The method presented is general and gives accurate results with the help of a
simple calculator. However, when the number of nodes increases, by increasing
the panels in the case of Waffle slabs, the greater number of linear simultaneous
equations may be a problem and computational analysis is required.
 REFERENCES 28

• Analysis of two-way RC Joist floors having different configurations by Syed Ali

Rizwan, Syed Ali Debaj and Husnain Ahmad
• A simplified approach for the analysis and design of two-way joist floors by Syed Ali
Rizwan and Azhar Ali Bhatti
• An analysis of open grid frame works. Civil and structural engineering review. ICE,
London, July, 1957 by Makowski, Z.S.
• Performance of Double layer square-on-square grids by Syed Ali Rizwan and Azhar
Bhatti.
• Z S Makowski: A Pioneer of Space Structures by Gerard A. R. Parke and S. Alireza
Behnejad
• Design of waffle slabs by Structville
“We cannot stop natural disasters but
we can arm ourselves with knowledge.”
Petra Nemcova