INTRODUC

TION
Python was created by Guido Van Rossum when he was working at
CWI (Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica) which is a National Research
Institute for Mathematics and Computer Science in Netherlands. The
language was released in 1991. Python got its name from a BBC
comedy series from seventies called “Monty Python ′s Flying Circus”.
It is based on two programming languages called ABC and Modula–3.

It is used in a variety of fields, including software development, web

development, scientific computing, big data and Artificial Intelligence.
 INTRODUCTION
CONTD…
Some of the features which make Python so popular are as follows:
✔ It is a general purpose programming language which can be used for both
scientific and non scientific programming.
✔ It is a platform independent programming language.
✔ It is a very simple high level language with vast library of add–on modules.
✔ It is excellent for beginners as the language is interpreted, hence gives
immediate results.
✔ The programs written in Python are easily readable and understandable.
✔ It is suitable as an extension language for customizable applications.
✔ It is easy to learn and use.
✔ It is case sensitive. i.e. Uppercase and Lowercase alphabets are different
 ADVANTAGES OF
PYTHON
Easy to Use: Python is compact and very easy to use Object Oriented language with very
simple syntax rules. It is programmer–friendly

Expressive Language: Because of simple syntax and fewer lines of code, it is more capable
to express code's purpose than many other languages

C Language Codefor swapping values Python Code for swapping values

int a = 2, b = 3, temp; a, b = 2, 3
temp = a; a, b = b, a
a = b;
b = temp;

Interpreted Language: Python interprets and executes the code line by line at a time. It
makes Python an easy–to–debug language and thus suitable for beginners and advanced users
ADVANTAGES OF PYTHON
Completeness: Python CONTD…..
Standard Library provides various modules for
different functionalities. For example, it can be used for different
functionalities like email, web–pages, databases, GUI development,
network connections and many more. Hence no additional libraries to be
installed

Cross–Platform Language: Python can run on different platforms like

Windows, Linux / Unix, Macintosh, Super Computers, Smart Phones etc.
Hence it portable language

Free and Open Source: Python is freely available at free of cost and its
source code is available to every body for further improvement

Variety of Usage: Python can be used for a variety of applications like

Scripting, Web Applications, Game development, System Administration,
Rapid Prototyping, GUI Programs, Database Applications etc.
LIMITATIONS OF PYTHON
Not the Fastest Language: Fully compiled languages are faster than interpreted
languages. Python is an interpreted language. It is first semi–compiled into an
internal byte–code, which is then executed by a Python interpreter. Hence Python
is not faster compared to fully compiled languages

Lesser Libraries: Python offers library support for almost all computing
programs, but its library is still not competent with languages like C, Java, Perl as
they have larger collection of libraries

Not Strong on Type–Binding: Python is not strong on catching 'Type

Mismatch'. For example, a String value can be stored in a variable declared as an
integer, where Python never complain about it

Not Easily Convertible: The syntax of Python language is simple but different
compared to other programming languages. Hence it is not easy to convert a
program which is in Python into other language
PYTHON
To write and run Python program, install Python interpreter in
computer. IDLE (GUI integrated) is the standard, most popular
Python development environment. IDLE is an acronym of
Integrated Development Environment. It lets edit, run, browse
and debug Python Programs from a single interface. This
environment makes it easy to write programs.

Python shell (interpreter) can be used in two ways

(i) Interactive Mode (ii) Script Mode
WORKING IN PYTHON
CONTD…..
Interactive Mode: As the name suggests, this mode allows to
interact with OS. This mode does not save commands in form of a
program. Some points to remember while working in interactive
mode are,

❖ The symbol '>>>' is called Python prompt, indicates that

interpreter is ready to accept command
❖ At the prompt, either a command or statement or expression can
be given
❖ The secondary prompt is '...', indicates that interpreter is waiting
for additional input
❖ Any statement starts with the symbol "#" is called comment
❖ Alt+P and Alt+N are used to invoke and repeat prior commands
provided interactive window
WORKING IN PYTHON
CONTD…..
❖ The quit( ) or Ctrl+D is used to leave the interpreter
❖ Ctrl+F6 will restarts the shell
❖ Type Credits at the prompt to get information about
the organization involved in Python development
❖ The commands copyright and license( ) can be used
to know more about Python
❖ The command help( ), with empty parenthesis, will
provides an interactive help
❖ The command help( ), with a command inside
parenthesis, will provide an exclusive help about
required command
❖ To leave help and return to interactive mode, quit
command can be used
 WORKING IN PYTHON
CONTD…..
Script Mode: In script mode, Python program is to be typed in a file and then
interpreter to be used to execute the content from the file. Working in
interactive mode is convenient for beginners and for testing small pieces of
code. But for coding more than few lines, code is to be saved so that it can be
modified and reused.

To create and run a Python script, the following steps to be used in IDLE

⮚ File→Open OR File→New Window (for creating a new script file)

⮚ Write the Python code as function i.e. script
⮚ Save it (Ctrl+S)
⮚ Execute it in interactive mode, by using RUN option (Ctrl+F5)
UNDERSTANDING
PRINT( )
To print or display output, Python provides print( )
statement. It can be used as follows

print (<objects to be printed>...)

Ex: print ("Hello World")

In Python, a string may be provided in either double

quotes or single quotes
 SET
Python character set represents the set of valid characters that Python supports. It
has the following character set

Letters A–Z, a–z

Digits 0–9

Special Symbols Space + – * / ** \ { } ( ) // = != == < , > . ' ' " " ; : % !

& # <= >= @ _ (underscore)

Whitespace Blank Space, Tab, Carriage Return, Newline, Form

feed

Other Characters Python can process all ASCII and Unicode

characters as
part of data or literals
TOKENS
The smallest individual unit in a program is known as Token. It is also called
as Lexical Unit. Tokens present in Python are (i) Keywords (ii) Identifiers (iii)
Literals (iv) Operators (v) Punctuators
Keywords: A keyword is a reserved word that has a predefined meaning to
the compiler / interpreter. A keyword must not be used as identifier. Python
has the following keywords

False assert del for in or while

None break elif from is pass with
True class else global lambda raise yield
and continue except if nonlocal return
as def finally import not try
CONTD…
Identifiers: An identifier is a name given to a program element such as variable,
function, list, dictionary etc. The rules to be followed while naming an identifier
in Python are,

❖ It may consist of letters (A–Z, a–z), digits (0–9), and underscore( _ )

❖ It must begin with a letter or an underscore
❖ It must not begin with a digit
❖ Uppercase and lowercase alphabets are different. For example sum, Sum,
SUM all are different
❖ A keyword must not be used as an identifier
❖ It can be of any length. However, it is preferred to be short and meaningful
 CONTD…
Literals / Constants: A literal or constant is a program element that will
never change its values during program execution. Python allows several
kinds of literals like (i) String literals (ii) Numeric literals (iii) Boolean
literals (iv) Special Literal None

String Literals: A string literal is a sequence of characters enclosed in

either single quotes or double quotes. Either both single quotes or both
double quotes to be used for a string. Example: "Python", 'Program' etc.
A single quoted string inside double quotes and vice–versa is legal in
Python. Ex: "Anu's" and 'Anu"s' are valid

Escape sequence will be given as a string and performs specified

task. Some escape sequences are
\n New line character
\t Horizontal Tab
 CONTD…
Python allows (i) Single–line Strings (ii) Multiline Strings

Single–line Strings: The strings that create by enclosing text

in single quotes or double quotes are called single–line
strings. Ex: "Python", 'Apple'

Multiline Strings: To provide a string in multiline, it is to be

provided in triple quotes (triple single quotes or triple double
quotes)
Ex: print ("""Jawahar
Navodaya Vidyalaya""")
CONTD…
Numeric Literals: These literals are three types namely (i) Integer
literals (ii) float literals (iii) complex literals

Integer Literals: An integer constant must have at least one digit

and must not contain any decimal point. Different integer literals
available are,

1. Decimal Integer Literals: It consists of a sequence of digits

between 0 and 9 and does not start with zero. Ex: 1234, –458 etc

2. Octal Integer Literals: It consists of a sequence of digits between

0 and 7. It begins with 0o(Digit Zero Letter o) Ex: 0o24, 0o746 etc

3. Hexadecimal Literals: It consists of a sequence of hexadecimal

values between 0–9 and A–F. It begins with 0x. Ex: 0x14AC
 CONTD…
Floating Point Literals: These are also called as Real Literals. These can
be expressed in two forms viz. Fractional Form and Exponent Form

1. Fractional Form: A real constant in fractional form must have at least

one digit either before or after decimal point. Ex; 2.0, 17.5, –14.6, –
0.05, .3 (means 0.3), 6. (means 6.0)

2. Exponent Form: A real constant in exponent form consists of two parts

mantissa and exponent. The mantissa must be either an integer or a
proper real constant. The mantissa is followed by a letter E or e and the
exponent. The exponent must be an integer.

Ex: 152E05, 1.52e07, 0.152E08, 152e+8,–0.172E–3, .25e–4

Boolean Literals: A Boolean literal represent one of the two Boolean

values i.e. True or False. A Boolean literal can either have value as True
or as False
CONTD…
Special Literal None:

None is a special literal in Python. It indicates the absence of

value. It means "There is not useful information" or "There is
nothing here“

Ex: >>>a = None

>>>print (a)
None
 CONTD…
Operators: An operator is a symbol that is used in a program in respect of some
operation. Each operation is denoted by some operator. For example the operation
addition is denoted by + and the operation “finding remainder” is denoted by %.
Each programming language will have its own set of operators.

The constants or variables that participate in the operation are called

operands

Unary Operator: If an operator takes only one operand then it is called Unary Operator
Binary Operator: If an operator takes two operands then it is called Binary Operator.
Ternary Operator: If an operator takes three operands then it is called Ternary Operator

Punctuators: These are the symbols used in programming to organize sentence

structures and indicate the emphasis of expressions, statements and program structure.
Some punctuators available in Python are,

'"#\()[]{}@,:.=
BASIC STRUCTURE OF
PYTHON PROGRAM
The following is a simple Python program
BASIC STRUCTURE OF PYTHON
PROGRAM CONTD…..
Expression: An expression is any valid combination of symbols and represents
a value

Statement: A statement is a programming instruction that does something i.e.

performs some action

Comments: These are the statements that will be ignored by Python interpreter
and will increase readability of program. A single line comment starts with the
symbol #. For multiline comment content will be enclosed in triple quotes (" " ")
or triple apostrophe (' ' '). A multiline comment is also known as docstring.

Functions: A function is a code that has collection of statements to do some

task. It has a name and a function can be executed repeatedly as many times
required

Blocks and Indentation: A group of statements which are part of another

statement or a function are called block or code–block or suite.
 VARIABLES
A variable is a program element that can change its value during
program execution. It is an identifier that has a named location and
refers to a value and that value can be processed during program
run. As a variable is an identifier, all the rules for naming an
identifier are applicable for naming a variable

Creating a Variable: A variable is created by assigning a value of desired

type to it. For example, an integer variable can be created by assigning an
integer value, and a string variable can be created by assigning a string. It
is not possible to create a variable with assigning a value to it

Ex: age = 20 # Means variable age is integer

average = 95.6 # Means variable average is of type float
name = "CBSE"# Means variable name is of type string
CONTD…
LValues and RValues: The LValues are the variables that hold a value
or expression, and may present on either left–hand side or right–hand
side of assignment. The RValues are the literals or expressions or
variables that are assigned to LValues and can present on only right–
hand side of assignment
Ex: Valid Statements a = 20
d = b*b–4*a*c
temp = a
Invalid Statements 20 = a
a*2=b
CONTD…
Multiple Assignments: Different ways of assignments are,

1. Assigning same value to multiple variables

Ex: a = b = c = 18

2. Assigning multiple values to multiple variables

Ex1: x, y, z = 10, 20, 30 # Means x=10, y=20, z=30

Ex2: x,y = y,x # This makes x=20, y = 10

Ex3: a, b, c = 5, 10, 7
b, c, a = a+1, b+2, c–1
print (a, b, c) # a=6, b=6, c=12

Here, first evaluations of RHS expression(s) and then assigns them

to LHS
CONTD…
Dynamic Typing: A variable having a value of certain data type
can be assigned with value of some other data type. In this case,
it automatically assumed to change the data type of that variable.
This is referred as Dynamic Typing

x = 10
print (x)
x = "Informatics Practices"
print(x)

This code will results in

10
Informatics Practices
VARIABLES CONTD…
Displaying type of variable : The type( ) can be used to
display the data type of a variable or constant or object

Example: >>> a=10

>>> type(a)
<class 'int'>
>>> a=20.5
>>> type(a)
<class 'float'>
>>> a="Python"
>>> type(a)
<class 'str'>
 PROGRAMMING
Input: The input( ) function is used to input during runtime of a program. But, this
function always returns a value of string type. i.e. even a number inputted using input( )
method is not a number and is a string

Syntax: variable = input(<Message to be displayed>)

>>>x = input ("Enter a Number")

>>>Enter a Number10

In the above case the value 10 inputted is assumed as string. Hence type of x is
string

To input as a number it is to be appropriately converted into desired data type,

like below

>>> a=int(input("Enter a Number"))

Enter a Number10
>>> print(a+2)
12
INPUT AND OUTPUT IN
PROGRAMMING CONTD…
Output: The print( ) function is used for output to standard output device,
monitor.

Syntax:
print(object1, [object2, object3, ....., sep=' ' or seperator_string, end=' ' or
end_string])
Example Command Output
1 print("Informatics Practices") Informatics Practices
2 print("Sum of 2 and 3 is", 2+3) Sum of 2 and 3 is 5
a=2
3 b=3 Sum of 2 and 3 is 5
print("Sum of", a, "and", b, "is", a+b)
a=2
4 b=3 Sum of$2$and$3$is$5
print("Sum of",a,"and",b,"is",a+b, sep='$')
a=2
5 b=3 Sum of 2 and 3 is 5*
print("Sum of",a,"and",b,"is",a+b, end='*')
DATA TYPES
A data type represents the type of data like character, integer, real,
string etc. Different types of data types in Python are,

Numbers: Number data type stores numerical values. This data

type is immutable, mean that the value of its object cannot be
changed. These are of three different types
NUMBERS
Integers: Integers are the whole numbers like 100000, –99, 0, 17 etc.
They have no decimal point. Integers can be positive or negative. If an
integer has no sign, then it is positive. There are two types of Integers

int: While writing an integer value, commas must not be used to

separate digits. Also integers should not have leading zeros. The data
type int can store any integer, either big or small.

bool: These represent the truth values False and True, that resembles
integers 0 and 1 respectively. The bool( ) function returns the
boolean equivalent digit.
>>> bool(1)
True
>>> bool(0)
False
 NUMBERS CONTD…
Floating Point Numbers: Numbers with fractions or decimal point
are called floating point numbers. A floating point number will
consist of sign (+,–) sequence of decimals digits and a dot such as
0.0, –21.9, 0.98333328, 15.2963. These numbers can be written in
two forms

(i) Fractional Form Examples 3500.75, 0.00005, 147.9101 etc

(ii) Exponent Form Examples 3.50075E03, 0.5E–04, 1.479101E02

etc

The advantage of floating point numbers over integers are,

they can represent values between integers and can be used to
represent much greater range of values
 DATA TYPES – NUMBERS
CONTD…
Complex Numbers: Complex number in python is made up of two
floating point values, one each for real and imaginary part. For
accessing different parts of variable (object) x; we will use x.real and
x.imag. Imaginary part of the number is represented by “j” instead of
“i”, so 1+0j denotes zero imaginary part.

>>> c=2–3j
>>> c.real
2.0
>>> c.imag
–3.0
DATA TYPES – NONE
None: This is special data type with single value. It is used to
signify the absence of value/false in a situation. It is represented
by None. It is used to define a null value, or no value at all.
None is not the same as 0, False, or an empty string.

>>> x=None
>>> print(x)
None
SEQUENCES
Sequence: A sequence is an ordered collection of items, indexed
by positive integers. It is combination of mutable and immutable
data types. Three types of sequence data type available in Python
are Strings, Lists & Tuples.

String: is an ordered sequence of letters/characters. They are

enclosed in single quotes (' ') or double (" "). The quotes are not
part of string. They only tell the computer where the string
constant begins and ends. They can have any character or sign,
including space in them. These are immutable data types.

Example
>>> a = 'Ram'
SEQUENCES CONTD…
Every string is a sequence of characters. Every character in a
string has an index and the character can be accessed using its
index

Ex: 0 1 2 3 4 5
Index
String P Y T H O N
Index –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1
Every character has two indexes like above and can be accessed
using either of the two indexes
>>> name="PYTHON"
>>> print(name[2])
T
>>> print(name[–4])
T
SEQUENCES CONTD…
It is possible to change one type of value/variable to another type.
It is known as type conversion or type casting. The conversion
can be done explicitly (programmer specifies the conversions) or
implicitly (Interpreter automatically converts the data type).

For explicit type casting, we use functions (constructors) :

int( ), float( ), str( ), bool( )

Example1 Example2
>>> a= 12.34 >>>a=25
>>> b= int(a) >>>y=float(a)
>>> print (b) >>>print (y)
12 25.0
SEQUENCES CONTD…
Lists: List is also a sequence of values of any type. Values in the
list are called elements / items. These are mutable and
indexed/ordered. List is enclosed in square brackets.

Example: lt = ['spam', 20.5,5]

Tuples: Tuples are a sequence of values of any type, and are

indexed by integers. They are immutable. Tuples are enclosed in ( ).
Example: >>> T=10, 20, 30, 40
>>> print (T)
(10, 20, 30, 40)
AND MAPPINGS
Sets: Set is an unordered collection of values, of any type, with
no duplicate entry. Sets are mutable. Duplicate values given, if
any, will be considered only once. Set elements cannot be
accessed individually.

Example: s = set ([1,2,3,4])

Mapping: This data type is unordered and mutable. Dictionaries

fall under Mappings.

Dictionaries: These can store any number of python objects.

What they store is a key – value pairs, which are accessed using
key. Dictionary is enclosed in curly brackets.

Example: d = {1:'a',2:'b',3:'c'}
DATA TYPES – MUTABLE AND
IMMUTABLE TYPES
Immutable Types: The immutable types are those that can never
change their value in place. Integers, Floating Point Numbers,
Booleans, Strings and Tuples are immutable types

Mutable Types: The mutable types are those that can change
their value in place. Lists, Dictionaries and Sets are mutable
types
 VARIABLE
that refer to a value.INTERNALS
The data or values are referred to as object. Similarly, a variable is also an object
Every object has three key attributes associated to it. These
are,

(i) type of object: The data type of a constant or variable can be displayed using
type( ) statement with the required argument

Ex: >>> type(11) Ex: >>> t=10,20,30,40

<class 'int'> >>> type(t)
>>> type(12.5) <class 'tuple'>
<class 'float'> >>> lt=['Spam',20.5,5]
>>> type(2+3j) >>> type(lt)
<class 'complex'> <class 'list'>
>>> type('Vidyalaya') >>> s=set([1,2,3,4])
<class 'str'> >>> type(s)
<class 'set'>
 VARIABLE INTERNALS
CONTD…
(ii) value of object: The print( ) can (iii) id of an object: The id of an object
is the memory location of it. The
be used to print the value of an object function id( ) is used for this purpose
like a variable or constant
Ex: >>> x=10
>>> id(x)
Ex: >>> a=4 1722770752
>>> y=20
>>> print(a) >>> id(y)
4 1722770912
>>> z=10
>>> print(4+2j) >>> id(z)
(4+2j) 1722770752
 OPERATORS AND
OPERANDS
⮚Operators are special symbols which represents computation.

⮚They are applied on operand(s), which can be values or variables.

⮚Same operator can behave differently on different data types.

⮚Operators when applied on operands form an expression.

⮚Operators are categorized as Arithmetic, Relational, Logical and Assignment.

⮚Value and variables when used with operator are known as operands.
 Arithmetic or Mathematical
Operators
Symbol Description Example 1 Example 2
>>>55+45 >>>'Good'+'Morning'
+ Addition
100 GoodMorning
>>>55–45 >>>30–80
– Subtraction
10 –50
>>>55*45 >>>'Good'*3
* Multiplication
2475 GoodGoodGood
>>>17/5 >>>28/3
3.4 9.33
>>>17/5.0
/ Division
3.4
>>>17.0/5
3.4
Remainder / >>>17%5 >>>23%2
%
Modulo Division 2 1
>>>2**3 >>>2**8
8 256
** Exponentiation
>>>16**.5
4.0
Integer Division (or) >>>7.0//2 >>>3//2
//
Floor Division 3.0 1
 Relational Operators
Symbol Description Example 1 Example 2
>>>7<10
True
>>>7<5 >>>'Hello'<'Goodbye'
False False
< Less Than
>>>7<10<15 >>>'Goodbye'<'Hello'
True True
>>>7<10 and 10<15
True
>>>7>5 >>>'Hello'>'Goodbye'
True True
> Greater Than
>>>10>10 >>>'Goodbye'>'Hello'
False False
>>>2<=5 >>>'Hello'<='Goodbye'
True False
<= Less Than or Equal To
>>>7<=4 >>>'Goodbye'<='Hello'
False True
>>>10>=10 >>>'Hello'>='Goodbye'
True True
>= Greater Than or Equal To
>>>10>=12 >>>'Goodbye'>='Hello'
False False
>>>10!=11 >>>'Hello'!='HELLO'
True True
!= Not Equal To
>>>10!=10 >>>'Hello’!='Hello'
False False
>>>10==10 >>>'Hello'=='Hello'
True True
== Equal To
>>>10==11 >>>'Hello'=='Goodbye'
False False
 Logical Operators
Symbol Description

and If any one of the operand is true, then the condition becomes true

or If both the operands are true, then the condition becomes true

not Reverses the state of operand/condition

Truth Tables for Logical

Operators
A B A and B A or B not A

True True True True False

True False False True False
False True False True True
False False False False True
 Assignment Operators
Symbol Description Example Explanation
Assigns value from right side operand to >>>x=12
=
left side variable >>>y='greetings'
Add and assign the result to left side Means x=x+2
+= >>>x+=2
variable x becomes 14

Subtract and assign the result to left side Means x=x–2

–= >>>x–=2
variable x becomes 10

Multiply and assign the result to left side Means x=x*2

*= >>>x*=2
variable x becomes 24
Divide and assign the result to left side Means x=x/2
/= >>>x/=2
variable x becomes 6
Modulo Divide and assign result to left side Means x=x%2
%= >>>x%=2
variable x becomes 0
Means
Performs exponential calculation and assign x=x**2
**= >>>x**=2
result to left side variable x becomes
144
Performs floor division on operators and Means x=x//2
//= >>>x//=2
 Identity
Symbol Operators
Description Example Explanation
Returns True only if both >>> x=10 Here, the operands x
the operands a and b are >>> y=20 and z are pointing to
is pointing to the same >>> z=10 the same object 10,
object, returns False hence resulted in
otherwise >>> x is z True where as x and
Returns True if both the True z are pointing to
operands a and b are different objects,
is not pointing to different >>> x is y hence resulted in
objects, returns False False false
otherwise
 Membership
Symbol
Operators >>> numSeq = [1,2,3]
Description Example

>>> 2 in numSeq
Returns True if the variable True
or value is found in the >>> '1' in numSeq
in
specified sequence and False False
otherwise
#'1' is a string while numSeq
contains number 1.
>>> numSeq = [1,2,3]
Returns True if the
>>> 10 not in numSeq
variable/value is not found
not in True
in the specified sequence
>>> 1 not in numSeq
and False otherwise
False
 Precedence of
Operators
While evaluating an expression the precedence of operators will
be like below. It gives the order of evaluation of operators in an
expression. However the precedence can be changed by using
parenthesis
 EXPRESSION
an expression may be anS
An expression is a combination of literals, operators and variables. In Python,
arithmetic expression, string expression, relational
expression, logical expression, compound expression etc.

Arithmetic Expressions: These expressions involve numbers (integers, floating

point numbers, complex numbers) and arithmetic operators
Ex: 2+8/3, 5.6–4.2/8*1.2

Relational Expressions: An expression having literals and/or variables of any

valid type and relational operators is a relational expression
Ex: x>y, y<=z, z<>x, z==q, x<y>, x==y<>z

Logical Expressions: An expression having literals and/or variables of any

valid type and logical operators is a logical expression.
Ex: a or b, b and c, a and not b, not c or not b

String Expressions: An expression that have string operands and results to

string are string expression.
Ex: "Pine"+"Apple", "Hello"*3
 DEBUGGIN
Gtypes of errors that will be
A bug is an error caused in a program. Correcting an error is
called Debugging. Different
encountered while developing any application are as follows

✔ Syntax Errors
✔ Runtime Errors
✔ Logical Errors

Syntax Errors: A set of rules for writing a statement in a

program is called Syntax. Hence, syntax errors occur when the
syntax rules of program are not followed. These errors are visible
during interpretation of program. For example, parentheses
mismatch the following statement will results into a syntax error

d = (b * b – (4 * a * c)
 DEBUGGING
CONTD…
Runtime Errors: These errors are so called because
these will be occurred during runtime of program. A
program may be syntactically correct, but may generate
errors during run time. For example,

a = 10, b = 0;
c = a / b;

The above code is syntactically correct. But

during runtime division with 0 is not possible and hence
error will be generated. These errors will cause
abnormal termination of code.
 DEBUGGING
Logical Errors:CONTD…
A program, without having any syntax and runtime
errors, may give wrong results. The errors that will give wrong results
due to the mistakes made by programmer are called Logical Errors.
These errors are hard to locate. Consider the below example:

hin_marks = 82, eng_marks = 90, gk_marks = 94;

average = hin_marks + eng_marks + gk_marks / 3;

The above statement is not having syntax error or runtime error,

but gives a wrong result. It should be as,

double average = (hin_marks + eng_marks + gk_marks) / 3;

It is an error by programmer and is called as Logical Error

 FUNCTIONS
A function refers to a set of statements or
instructions grouped under a name that perform specified
tasks. A function is defined once and can be reused at
places in a program by simply writing the function name,
i.e., by calling that function.

Python has many predefined functions called

built‑in functions. A module is a python file in which
multiple functions are grouped together. These functions
can be easily used in a Python program by importing the
module using import command. Use of built‑in functions
makes programming faster and efficient.
 FUNCTIONS
CONTD…
A function will have the following parts

⮚Function Name — name of the function.

⮚Arguments / Parameters — These are variables or

constants passed in parentheses while calling a function. A
function may or may not have argument(s).

⮚Return Value — A function may or may not return one or

more values. A function performs operations on the basis
of argument(s) passed to it and the result is passed back to
the calling point. Some functions do not return any value.
 FUNCTIONS
Consider the CONTD…
following Python program using three built–in
functions input( ), int( ) and print( ):

#Calculate square of a number

num = int(input("Enter the first number"))
square = num * num
print("the square of", num, " is ", square)
 FUNCTIONS
CONTD…
In the above program,

✔ In the first statement, two built–in functions used are int( ) and input( ).
The third line has a function print( )

✔ The input function accepts an argument, “Enter your name”.

Argument(s) is the value(s) passed within the parenthesis.

✔ Similarly the print function has four arguments "the square of", num, "is",

square separated by commas.

✔ The int function in the first line takes as argument the value entered by
the
user from the keyboard and converts it into a string and returns it. Thus
the return value from the int( ) function is an integer.

Some examples for built–in functions are print( ), bool( ), dict( ), list( ),
 Statement Flow Control

In general, all the statements in a program will be

executed sequentially. i.e. no statement will be skipped or
no statement will be executed repeatedly. Such execution
is referred as Sequential execution. Python allows
selection statements to execute selected statements from
the available set of statements and iterative statements to
execute a set of statements repeatedly
 TYPES OF
STATEMENTS
A statement is a part of program and an instruction given to python interpreter
to perform some action such as taking input, generating output, evaluating an
expression etc. It is the smallest executable unit within a program. In Python,
statements are as follows

⮚Empty Statement
⮚Simple (Single) Statement
⮚Compound(Multiple) Statement

Empty Statement: An empty statement is pass statement, which does nothing.

When Python interpreter encounters pass statement, it does nothing and moves
to next statement in the flow of control

A pass statement is useful in those instances where the syntax of the

language requires the presence of a statement but where the logic of the
program does not. A pass statement is also known as null operation statement
TYPES OF STATEMENTS
CONTD…
Simple Statement: A single line executable statement is a Simple Statement.

Example 1: name = input("Enter Your Name:")

Example 2: print(name)

Compound Statement: A Compound Statement is a group of simple statements which

are executed to be whole or not to be executed whole. A compound statement may
consists of another compound statement.

In Python, a compound statement has the following

Header Line: It begins with a keyword and ends with a colon

Body: It consists of one or more indented statements inside the header line. All the
statements in the body are at the same level of indentation

Syntax:
<compound statement header>:
<indented body containing multiple simple and / or compound statements>
SELECTION / CONDITIONAL
STATEMENTS
SELECTION / CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS
CONTD…
SELECTION / CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS
CONTD…
The if–elif Statement:

The if–elif statement is useful for putting multipath

decisions. A multipath decision is a chain of ifs in which the
statement associated with each else is an if. It takes the
following general form.

if <condition>:
statements1
elif <condition>:
statements2
elif <condition>:
statements3
else:
statements
SELECTION / CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS
CONTD…
The nested if statement:

In the different forms of if statements viz. if statement, if–else statement

and if–elif statements any statement can be used in another statement that results
in nesting of if statement

Ex:

if <condition>:
if <condition>:
statements1a
else:
statements1b
elif <condition>:
statements2
elif <condition>:
statements3
else:
statements
 ITERATIVE / REPETITIVE / LOOP
STATEMENTS
The while loop:

✔ The syntax of while statement is,

while <logical_expression >:

statements_to_repeat
else:
statements

✔ When the control enters while loop the logical expression will be evaluated

✔ If it evaluates to true then the statements part will be executed and again control
transfers to logical_expression part

✔ If the logical expression returns false then the control will be exited from while loop

✔ Statements will be continuously executed as long as the condition is true

✔ If the condition becomes false then the else part will be executed, if present
ITERATIVE / REPETITIVE / LOOP STATEMENTS
CONTD…
The range( ) function:

This function generates a list which is a special sequence type. A sequence is a succession of
values bound together by a single name. Some sequence are: strings, lists, tuples etc.

Syntax : range(<lower limit>, <upper limit> [,<step value>])

Use : The function in the form range(l, u) will produce a list having values
starting from l to u–1(Upper limit not included), where l and u are integers.
If step value is ignored then default step value is +1

Statement Values generated

range(10) 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
range(5,10) 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
range(7,3) No values will be generated

range(8, 8) No values will be generated

range(5, 15, 3) 5, 8, 11, 14
range(9, 3, –1) 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4
range(–10, –5) –10, –9, –8, –7, –6
range(–10) No values will be generated
range(–10, –5, 2) –10, –8, –6
ITERATIVE / REPETITIVE / LOOP STATEMENTS
CONTD…
The in and not in Operators:

These operators are used along with range( ) to check whether a value is
contained inside a list or not. These operators returns a value either True or False

Boolean Value
Example Expression
Returned
1 3 in [1, 2, 3, 4] True
2 5 in [1, 2, 3, 4] False
3 5 not in [1, 2, 3, 4] True
4 ′a′ in ″trade″ True
5 ″ash″ in ″trash″ True
6 ″the″ in ″Python″ False
ITERATIVE / REPETITIVE / LOOP STATEMENTS
CONTD…
The for loop:

❖ The syntax of for statement is,

for <variable> in <sequence>:

statements_to_repeat
else:
statements

❖ The loop–variable is assigned the first value in the sequence

❖ All the statements in the body of for loop are executed with assigned value of
loop variable

❖ Now, the loop–variable is assigned the next value in the sequence and the
loop–body is executed with new value of loop–variable

❖ This continues until all values in the sequences are processed

❖ After processing all the elements in the sequence the else part
will be executed,
if present