EMM 3316: Fluid Mechanics

Dimensional Analysis

Acknowledgements:
Dr. Cüneyt Sert
Mechanical Engineering Department
Middle East Technical University
csert@metu.edu.tr
Introduction
◦ Consider that we are interested in determining how the drag force acting on a smooth sphere immersed
in a uniform flow depends on other fluid and flow variables.
◦ Important variables of the problem are shown below (How did we decide on these?)

◦ Drag force 𝐹D is thought to depend on the following variables.

◦ In order to find the actual functional relation we need to perform a set of experiments.
◦ Dimensional analysis helps us to design and perform these experiments in a systematic way.
◦ The following set of controlled experiments should be done:
◦ Fix 𝐷, 𝜇 and 𝜌. Change 𝑉 and measure 𝐹𝐷
◦ Fix 𝑉, 𝜇 and 𝜌. Change 𝐷 and measure 𝐹𝐷
◦ Fix 𝐷, 𝑉 and 𝜇. Change 𝜌 and measure 𝐹𝐷
◦ Fix 𝐷, 𝑉 and 𝜌. Change 𝜇 and measure 𝐹𝐷

◦ We need to perform too many experiments.

◦ Also there are major difficulties such as finding fluids with different densities,
but same viscosities.
◦ It is possible to simplify the dependency of drag force on other variables by using nondimensional
(unitless) parameters.
◦ To find this new relation, we only need to change the Reynolds number.
◦ We can do it in any way we want, e.g. the simplest way is to change the speed

◦ All 𝑅𝑒 = 15000 flows around a sphere will look like the same and they all
of air flow in a wind tunnel.

provide the same non-dimensional drag force. It does not matter what fluid
we use or how big the sphere is (be aware of very extreme cases).
◦ Dimensional analysis is used to formulate a physical phenomenon as a
relation between a set of non-dimensional (unitless) groups of variables such
that the number of these groups is less than the number of dimensional
variables.
◦ It is important to develop a systematic and meaningful way to perform
experiments.
◦ Nature of the experiments are simplified and the number of required
experiments is reduced.
Buckingham Pi Theorem
◦ Buckingham Pi theorem can be used to determine the non-dimensional groups of
variables (Pi groups) for a given set of dimensional variables.

(𝐹D , 𝐷, 𝑉, 𝜇, 𝜌) and this theorem helps us to find two Pi groups as

◦ For the flow over a sphere problem studied previously, dimensional parameter set is

◦ Let’s explain how this works using “the drag force acting on a sphere” problem.
◦ Step 1 : List all the dimensional variables involved in the problem.
◦ 𝑛 is the number of dimensional variables.
◦ 𝑛 = 5 for our example.
◦ These variables should be independent of each other. For example if the diameter of a sphere is in the list, the
surface area or radius of the sphere can not be included.
◦ If body forces are important in a problem, gravitational acceleration should be in the list, although it is a constant.
◦ Step 2 : Express each of the variables in terms of basic dimensions,
which are
𝐿: length , 𝑇: time , 𝑀: mass
◦ For problems involving heat transfer, Θ (temperature) can also be a basic dimension.
◦ For the example we are studying basic dimensions of variables are

◦ Our example involves 𝑟 = 3 primary dimensions. For most fluid mechanics problems, 𝑟 will be

◦ Variables having only 𝐿 in their dimension are called geometric variables.

3.

◦ Variables having only 𝑇 or both 𝐿 and 𝑇 are called kinematic variables.

◦ Variables having 𝑀 in their dimension are called dynamic variables.
◦ For our example 𝐷 is a geometric, 𝑉 is a kinematic and 𝐹 , 𝜇 and 𝜌 are dynamic variables.
◦ Step 3: Determine the repeating variables that are allowed to
appear in more than one Pi group, and the non-repeating variable
◦ There should be 𝑟 many repeating variables.
◦ If 𝐿 is a primary dimension of the problem, we should select one geometric variable as a

◦ If 𝑇 is a primary dimension of the problem, we should select one kinematic variable as a

repeating variable.

◦ If 𝑀 is a primary dimension of the problem, we should select one dynamic variable as a

repeating variable.

repeating variable.
◦ Note that this selection is not unique and the resulting Pi groups will depend on our

◦ For the problem of interest we can select 𝐷 , 𝑉 and 𝜌 as repeating variables.

selection. Certain selections are ‘‘better’’ than others.

variable. In our example 𝐹D is a dependent variable. We are trying to understand how it

◦ If there is an obvious dependent variable in the problem, do not select it as a repeating

depends on other variables.

◦ Step 4: Determine (𝑛 − 𝑟) many Pi groups by combining repeating variables with non-
repeating variables and using the fact that Pi groups should be non-dimensional.
◦ For our example we need to find 5 − 3 = 2 Pi groups. The non-repeating variables should only appear
in one Pi term.
◦ Now determine the second Pi group which has 𝜇 as the nonrepeating variable.

◦ Therefore the relation of non-dimensional groups that we are after is:

◦ It is better to write the second Pi group as because it is the well known Reynolds
number.
Example

Determine a suitable set of Pi terms to study this

phenomenon experimentally
Step 1 Step 4 Step 7 check that the three pi
terms are
Step 5: form the first Pi term with nondimensional
Step 2 the three repeating variables

Solve for a, b and c

Step 8 express the results of

the
dimensional analysis in the
Step 3: three Pi terms Step 6 Repeat the procedure
form
needed for the two remaining
nonrepeating variables h and
μ to obtain
 circular pipe. We are interested in analyzing the pressure drop, ∆𝑝, over a pipe length of 𝐿.
1. Consider the flow of an incompressible fluid through a long, smooth- walled horizontal,

Other variables of the problem are pipe diameter (𝐷), average velocity (𝑉) and fluid
properties (𝜌 and 𝜇). Determine the Pi groups by a) selecting 𝜌 as a repeating parameter,
b) selecting 𝜇 as a repeating parameter.

The time, 𝜏, to drain the tank depends on tank diameter, 𝐷, orifice diameter, 𝑑,
2. In a laboratory experiment a tank is drained through an orifice from initial liquid level h 0.

gravitational acceleration, 𝑔, liquid properties, 𝜌 and 𝜇. Determine the Pi groups.

3. The diameter, 𝑑, of the dots made by an ink jet printer depends on the ink properties, 𝜌
and 𝜇, surface tension, 𝜎, nozzle diameter, 𝐷, the distance, 𝐿, of the nozzle from the
paper and the ink jet velocity, 𝑉. Determine the Pi groups.
4. The power, 𝒫, required to drive a propeller is known to depend on the following variables:
freestream speed, 𝑉, propeller diameter, 𝐷, angular speed, 𝜔, fluid properties, 𝜌 and 𝜇,
and the speed of sound 𝑐. Determine the Pi groups.
 Basic Dimensions
Quantity FLT MLT
System System
(US) (SI)
Acceleration LT -2 LT -2
Angular Velocity T -1 T -1
Area L2 L2
Mass Density FL-4 T 2 ML-3
Weight Density FL-3 ML-2T -2
Force (weight) F MLT -2
Kinematic Viscosity L2T -1 L2T -1
Length L L
Mass FL T
-1 2
M
Power FLT -1 ML2T -3
Pressure FL-2 ML-1T -2
Surface Tension FL-1 MT -2
Velocity LT -1 LT -1
Viscosity FL-2T ML-1T -1
Volume L3 L3
Volume Flowrate L3T -1 L3T -1
Work, Energy FL ML2T -2
Forces encountered in the flowing fluids include those due to inertia, viscosity, pressure
gradient, surface tension and compressibility. The ratio of any two forces will be dimensionless.
Typical forces are as follows:
Important Non-dimensional Numbers in
Fluid Mechanics (Table 7.1)
◦ The following non-dimensional numbers frequently appear as a Pi group.
◦ Reynolds number : Ratio of inertia forces to viscous forces.

◦ Euler number : Ratio of pressure forces to inertia forces. 1𝜌𝑉2

◦ Froude number: Squareroot of the ratio of inertia forces to gravitational 𝑔𝐿

◦ forces.
◦ Mach number : Squareroot of the ratio of inertia forces to compressibility
forces.
◦ Weber number: Squareroot of the ratio of inertia forces to surface tension
forces.
◦ Strouhal number : Used for flows with oscillatory (periodic) behavior.

◦ Cavitation number : . Used for possibly cavitating flows.

Model and Prototype
◦ In experimental fluid mechanics we sometimes cannot work with real sized objects, known as
prototypes.
◦ Instead we use scaled down (or up) versions of them, called models.
◦ Also sometimes in experiments we use fluids that are different than actual working fluids, e.g. we use
regular tap water instead of salty sea water to test the performance of a marine propeller.
Three Basic Laws of Similitude
◦ A similitude analysis is done to make sure that the results obtained from an experiment can
correctly be transferred to the real flow field.
◦ We obtain similarity between a model and a prototype by equating pi terms
◦ Three basic laws of similitude must be satisfied in order to achieve complete similarity
between prototype and model flow fields.
◦ 1. Geometric similarity : Model and prototype must have the same shape, but can be

the prototype by a constant length ratio, 𝐿𝑟.

different in size. All linear dimensions of the model is related to corresponding dimensions of

◦ It is usually impossible to establish 100 % geometric similarity due to very small details that can not be put into the
model. Modeling surface roughness exactly is also impossible.
◦ 2. Kinematic similarity : Model and prototype flow fields are kinematically

differ only by a constant factor of velocity ratio, 𝑉𝑟

similar if the velocities at corresponding points are the same in direction and

◦ This also means that the streamline patterns of two flow fields should differ by a constant scale factor.
◦ 3. Dynamic similarity : Two flow fields should have force distributions such
that identical types of forces are parallel and are related in magnitude by a
constant factor of force ratio.
◦ If a certain type of force, e.g. compressibility force, is highly dominant in the prototype flow, it should
also be dominant in the model flow.
◦ If a certain type of force, e.g. surface tension force, is negligibly small in the prototype flow, it should
also be small in the model flow.
◦ How suitable should it be to use a very light and very small model to test the forces acting on a ship?
◦ To establish dynamic similarity we need to determine the important forces of the prototype flow and
make sure that the nondimensional numbers related to those forces are the same in prototype and
model flows.
◦ For compressible flow: Re#, Mach#, and specific heat ratio must be matched.
◦ For incompressible flow with no free surface: Re# matching only.
◦ For incompressible flow with a free/open surface: Re#, Froude#, and possibly Weber number
(surface tension effects), and cavitation number must be matched.
Example
384 km/h

384 km/h

Determine:
a) Required air pressure in the tunnel (assuming
the same air temperature for model and
prototype)
b) The drag on the prototype corresponding to a
measured force of 4.4 N on the model
For this example, v = vm and lm/l = 1/10, looking at Reynolds number,

This result shows that the same fluid with = and = cannot be used if Reynolds number similarity is to be
maintained. One possibility is to pressurize the wind tunnel to increase the density of the air. We assume that an
increase in pressure does not significantly change the viscosity so that the required increase in density is given by
the relationship = 10. For an ideal gas, so that = for constant temperature. Therefore, the wind tunnel would
need to be pressurized so that Since the prototype operates at standard atmospheric pressure, the required
pressure in the wind tunnel is 10 atmospheres.

Thus, we see that a high pressure would be required and this could not be easily or inexpensively achieved.
However, under these conditions Reynolds similarity would be attained and the drag could be obtained from the
equation or . Thus, for a drag of 1 lb on the model
the corresponding drag on the prototype is G =10 lb
◦ The important question is how to decide on the important force types for a
given problem? In other words, the equality of which nondimensional
numbers should be sought?
◦ Reynolds number similarity is important for almost all flows.
◦ Froude number similarity is important for flows with free surfaces, such as ship resistance, open
channel flows and for flows driven by the action of gravity.
◦ Euler number similarity is important mostly for turbomachinery flows with considerable pressure
changes, for which cavitation may be a concern.
◦ Mach number similarity is important for high speed flows.
◦ Weber number similarity is important for problems involving interfaces between two fluids and low
weight objects.
◦ Strouhal number similarity is important for flows with an oscillating (time periodic) flow pattern, such
as von Karman vortices shed from bodies.
5. The drag force on a submarine, which is moving well below the free surface, is to be
determined by a test on a model, which is scaled down to one- twentieth of the prototype.
The test is to be carried in a water tunnel. The density and kinematic viscosity of the
seawater are 1010 kg/m3 and 1.3x10-6 m2/s. The water in the tunnel has a density of 988
kg/m3 and a kinematic viscosity of 0.65x10-6 m2/s. If the speed of the prototype is 2.6 m/s,
then determine the
a) speed of the model.
b) ratio of the drag force in the prototype to the one in the model.
6. The model described in the previous problem will now be used to determine the drag force
of a submarine, which is moving on the surface. The properties of the sea water are as given
above. The speed of the prototype is 2.6 m/s.
a) Determine the speed of the model.
b) Determine the kinematic viscosity of the liquid that should be used in the experiments.
Exercises
7. An airplane travels in air at a velocity of 200 m/s. Pressure and temperature of air are 90 kPa
and 10oC, respectively. A model of this airplane with a length scale of 10 is tested in a wind
tunnel at 20oC. The specific heat ratio and gas constant for air are 1.4 and 287.1 J/kgK,
respectively. Taking the effect of compressibility into account, determine the
a) velocity of air in the wind tunnel,
b) density of air in the wind tunnel.
Exercise
8. A long structural component of a
bridge has an elliptical cross section. It is
known that when an unsteady wind blows
past this type of bluff body, vortices may
develop on the downwind side that are shed
in a regular fashion at some definite frequency.

determine the shedding frequency. For the specific structure of interest, 𝐷 = 0.1 m, 𝐻 = 0.3 m, and a
Since these vortices can create harmful periodic forces acting on the structure, it is important to

representative wind velocity is 50 km/hr. Standard air can be assumed. The shedding frequency is to be

model, 𝐷 = 20 mm and the water temperature is 20 °C

determined through the use of a small scale model that is to be tested in a water tunnel. For the

Determine the model dimension, Hm and the velocity at which the test should be performed. If the
shedding frequency for the model is found to be 49.9 Hz, what is the corresponding frequency for the
prototype Movie Collapse of Tacoma
Narrows Bridge
http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=j-zczJXSxnw