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    Lect 2

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    abhs82
    Classical substitution ciphers replace letters or bits of plaintext with ciphertext equivalents. The Caesar cipher shifts each letter by a fixed number, like 3 positions. Frequency analysis can break monoalphabetic ciphers by analyzing letter frequencies to deduce the cipher. The Playfair cipher encrypts digrams using a 5x5 keyword matrix. Polyalphabetic ciphers use multiple cipher alphabets selected by a repeating keyword to encrypt each letter. Transposition ciphers rearrange the letters but keep the same frequencies. Product ciphers combine ciphers for stronger security.

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    Lect 2

    Uploaded by

    abhs82
    111 views27 pages
    Classical substitution ciphers replace letters or bits of plaintext with ciphertext equivalents. The Caesar cipher shifts each letter by a fixed number, like 3 positions. Frequency analysis can break monoalphabetic ciphers by analyzing letter frequencies to deduce the cipher. The Playfair cipher encrypts digrams using a 5x5 keyword matrix. Polyalphabetic ciphers use multiple cipher alphabets selected by a repeating keyword to encrypt each letter. Transposition ciphers rearrange the letters but keep the same frequencies. Product ciphers combine ciphers for stronger security.

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    Classical substitution ciphers replace letters or bits of plaintext with ciphertext equivalents. The Caesar cipher shifts each letter by a fixed number, like 3 positions. Frequency analysis can break monoalphabetic ciphers by analyzing letter frequencies to deduce the cipher. The Playfair cipher encrypts digrams using a 5x5 keyword matrix. Polyalphabetic ciphers use multiple cipher alphabets selected by a repeating keyword to encrypt each letter. Transposition ciphers rearrange the letters but keep the same frequencies. Product ciphers combine ciphers for stronger security.

    Copyright:

    Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
    Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as ppt, pdf, or txt
    111 views27 pages

    Lect 2

    Uploaded by

    abhs82
    Classical substitution ciphers replace letters or bits of plaintext with ciphertext equivalents. The Caesar cipher shifts each letter by a fixed number, like 3 positions. Frequency analysis can break monoalphabetic ciphers by analyzing letter frequencies to deduce the cipher. The Playfair cipher encrypts digrams using a 5x5 keyword matrix. Polyalphabetic ciphers use multiple cipher alphabets selected by a repeating keyword to encrypt each letter. Transposition ciphers rearrange the letters but keep the same frequencies. Product ciphers combine ciphers for stronger security.

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    Classical Substitution Ciphers

    where letters of plaintext are replaced by other letters or by numbers or symbols or if plaintext is viewed as a sequence of bits, then substitution involves replacing plaintext bit patterns with ciphertext bit patterns

    Caesar Cipher
    earliest known substitution cipher by Julius Caesar first attested use in military affairs replaces each letter by a letter three places down the alphabet example:
    meet me after the toga party PHHW PH DIWHU WKH WRJD SDUWB

    Caesar Cipher
    can define transformation as: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C mathematically give each letter a number a b c d e f g h i j k l m 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 n o p q r s t u v w x y Z 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 then have Caesar cipher as: C = E(p) = (p + k) mod (26) p = D(C) = (C k) mod (26) modulo arithmetic: 1 = 27 mod 26, 3 = 29 mod 26

    Cryptanalysis of Caesar Cipher


    only have 26 possible keys
    Could shift K = 0, 1, 2, , 25 slots

    could simply try each in turn a brute force search given ciphertext, just try all shifts of letters do need to recognize when have plaintext Test:break ciphertext GCUA VQ DTGCM

    Monoalphabetic Cipher
    rather than just shifting the alphabet could shuffle the letters arbitrarily each plaintext letter maps to a different random ciphertext letter hence key is 26 letters long
    Plain: abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz Cipher: DKVQFIBJWPESCXHTMYAUOLRGZN Plaintext: ifwewishtoreplaceletters Ciphertext: WIRFRWAJUHYFTSDVFSFUUFYA

    Monoalphabetic Cipher Security


    now have a total of 26! = 4 x 10^26 keys with so many keys, might think is secure
    The simplicity and strength of the monoalphabetic substitution cipher dominated for the first millenium AD.

    but would be !!!WRONG!!!


    First broken by Arabic scientists in 9th century

    Frequency Analysis
    letters are not equally commonly used in English e is by far the most common letter then T,R,N,I,O,A,S other letters are fairly rare cf. Z,J,K,Q,X have tables of single, double & triple letter frequencies

    English Letter Frequencies

    Use in Cryptanalysis
    key concept - monoalphabetic substitution ciphers do not change relative letter frequencies discovered by Arabian scientists in 9th century calculate letter frequencies for ciphertext compare counts/plots against known values for monoalphabetic must identify each letter
    tables of common double/triple letters help

    Example Cryptanalysis
    given ciphertext:
    UZQSOVUOHXMOPVGPOZPEVSGZWSZOPFPESXUDBMETSXAIZ VUEPHZHMDZSHZOWSFPAPPDTSVPQUZWYMXUZUHSX EPYEPOPDZSZUFPOMBZWPFUPZHMDJUDTMOHMQ

    count relative letter frequencies (see text) guess P & Z are e and t guess ZW is th and hence ZWP is the proceeding with trial and error finally get:
    it was disclosed yesterday that several informal but direct contacts have been made with political representatives of the viet cong in moscow

    Playfair Cipher
    not even the large number of keys in a monoalphabetic cipher provides security one approach to improving security was to encrypt multiple letters the Playfair Cipher is an example invented by Charles Wheatstone in 1854, but named after his friend Baron Playfair

    Playfair Key Matrix


    a 5X5 matrix of letters based on a keyword fill in letters of keyword (sans duplicates) fill rest of matrix with other letters eg. using the keyword MONARCHY
    MONAR CHYBD EFGIK LPQST UVWXZ

    Encrypting and Decrypting


    plaintext encrypted two letters at a time:
    1. if a pair is a repeated letter, insert a filler like 'X', eg. "balloon" encrypts as "ba lx lo on" 2. if both letters fall in the same row, replace each with letter to right (wrapping back to start from end), eg. ar" encrypts as "RM" 3. if both letters fall in the same column, replace each with the letter below it (again wrapping to top from bottom), eg. mu" encrypts to "CM" 4. otherwise each letter is replaced by the one in its row in the column of the other letter of the pair, eg. hs" encrypts to "BP", and ea" to "IM" or "JM" (as desired)

    Polyalphabetic Ciphers
    another approach to improving security is to use multiple cipher alphabets called polyalphabetic substitution ciphers makes cryptanalysis harder with more alphabets to guess and flatter frequency distribution use a key to select which alphabet is used for each letter of the message use each alphabet in turn repeat from start after end of key is reached

    Example
    key: deceptivedeceptivedeceptive plaintext: wearediscoveredsaveyourself ciphertext:ZICVTWQNGRZGVTWAVZHCQYGLMGJ

    write the plaintext out write the keyword repeated above it


    eg using keyword deceptive

    use each key letter as a caesar cipher key encrypt the corresponding plaintext letter

    Transposition Ciphers
    now consider classical transposition or permutation ciphers these hide the message by rearranging the letter order without altering the actual letters used can recognise these since have the same frequency distribution as the original text

    Rail Fence cipher


    write message letters out diagonally over a number of rows then read off cipher row by row eg. write message out as:
    m e m a t r h t g p r y e t e f e t e o a a t

    giving ciphertext
    MEMATRHTGPRYETEFETEOAAT

    Row Transposition Ciphers


    a more complex scheme write letters of message out in rows over a specified number of columns then reorder the columns according to some key before reading off the rows
    Key: 4 3 1 2 5 6 7 Plaintext: a t t a c k p o s t p o n e d u n t i l t w o a m x y z Ciphertext: TTNAAPTMTSUOAODWCOIXKNLYPETZ

    Product Ciphers
    ciphers using substitutions or transpositions are not secure because of language characteristics hence consider using several ciphers in succession to make harder, but:
    two substitutions make a more complex substitution two transpositions make more complex transposition but a substitution followed by a transposition makes a new much harder cipher

    this is bridge from classical to modern ciphers

    Steganography
    an alternative to encryption hides existence of message
    using only a subset of letters/words in a longer message marked in some way using invisible ink hiding graphic image or sound file

    has drawbacks
    high overhead to hide relatively few info bits

    Summary
    have considered:
    classical cipher techniques and terminology monoalphabetic substitution ciphers cryptanalysis using letter frequencies Playfair ciphers polyalphabetic ciphers transposition ciphers product ciphers and rotor machines stenography

    Modern Block Ciphers


    one of the most widely used types of cryptographic algorithms provide secrecy /authentication services focus on DES (Data Encryption Standard) to illustrate block cipher design principles most symmetric block ciphers are based on a Feistel Cipher Structure

    Block vs Stream Ciphers


    block ciphers process messages in blocks, each of which is then en/decrypted like a substitution on very big characters
    64-bits or more

    stream ciphers process messages a bit or byte at a time when en/decrypting many current ciphers are block ciphers broader range of applications

    Feistel Cipher Structure


    Horst Feistel devised the feistel cipher
    Based on the concept of product cipher

    partitions input block into two halves


    process through multiple rounds which perform a substitution on left data half based on round function of right half & subkey then have permutation swapping halves

    Feistel Cipher Structure

    Feistel Cipher Design Elements


    block size key size number of rounds subkey generation algorithm round function fast software en/decryption ease of analysis

    Feistel Cipher Decryption

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