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Lecture Notes 2

The document discusses key concepts in logic, including tautology, contradiction, logical equivalences, and De Morgan's laws. It explains the substitution principle, predicates, propositional functions, and quantifiers, emphasizing the importance of truth values and counterexamples. Additionally, it provides examples to illustrate these concepts and their applications in logical reasoning.

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5 views

Lecture Notes 2

The document discusses key concepts in logic, including tautology, contradiction, logical equivalences, and De Morgan's laws. It explains the substitution principle, predicates, propositional functions, and quantifiers, emphasizing the importance of truth values and counterexamples. Additionally, it provides examples to illustrate these concepts and their applications in logical reasoning.

Uploaded by

kaanaydin1441
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Tautology and Contradiction

• Substitution Principle:
– Replace a statement with another statement having the same truth value.
• Tautology:
– A compound proposition always true, regardless of the truth values of its variables.
• Contradiction:
– A compound proposition always false, irrespective of variable truth values.

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Logical equivalences
• p ≡ q : the compound propositions p and q are logically equivalent if p ↔
q is a tautology
• We can use truth tables to determine whether two propositions are
equivalent or not.
Example: Show that ┐(p v q) and ┐p  ┐ q are logically equivalent.

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An Important Logical Equivalence
p  q  p  q
p q p→q ┐p˅q

T T T T

T F F F

F T T T

F F T T

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De Morgan’s laws

1) The negation of an and statement is logically equivalent to the or


statement in which each component is negated.
┐(p  q)  ┐p  ┐q.
2) The negation of an or statement is logically equivalent to the and
statement in which each component is negated.
┐(p  q)  ┐p  ┐q.

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Examples
• Original Example: "Sara finished her homework and Alex completed his
assignments."
• Negation: "Sara did not finish her homework or Alex did not complete his
assignments."

• -1 < x  4 means x > –1 and x  4


• By De Morgan’s Law, the negation is:
┐(x > –1) or ┐(x  4) which is equivalent to:
x  –1 or x > 4

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Logical equivalences

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Logical equivalences

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Logical equivalences

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Example
• Show that

Instead of using truth tables, we used the previous identities.

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Predicates and Propositional Functions
• Statement: x > 3
• Subject: The variable x is the subject of the statement.
• Predicate: The predicate "is greater than 3" refers to a property that the
subject can have.
• Denotation: Denote the statement by p(x), where p is the predicate "is
greater than 3" and x is the variable.
• Propositional Function: p(x), also known as the value of the propositional
function p at x.
• Truth Value: Once a value is assigned to x, p(x) becomes a proposition
with a truth value.

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Example of a Propositional Function
• Let p(x) denote the statement “x > 3”
– p(4): setting x=4, thus p(4) is true
– p(2): setting x=2, thus p(2) is false

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N-ary Predicate
• A statement involving n variables, x1, x2, …, xn, can be denoted by p(x1, x2,
…, xn)
• p(x1, x2, …, xn) is the value of the propositional function p at the n-tuple
(x1, x2, …, xn)
• p is also called n-ary predicate

Example:
x + 2y + 3z < 18
is a propositional function on N × N × N. Such a propositional function has no
truth value.

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Quantifiers
• Quantifiers can be used to express the extent to which a
predicate is true
• In English, all, some, many, none, few
• Focus on two types:
– Universal: a predicate is true for every element under
consideration
– Existential: a predicate is true for there is one or more
elements under consideration
• Predicate calculus: the area of logic that deals with predicates
and quantifiers

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Universal quantifier 
• “p(x) for all values of x in the domain”
x p (x)
• Read it as “for all x p(x)” or “for every x p(x)”
• A statement x p(x)is false if and only if p(x) is
not always true
• An element for which p(x) is false is called a
counterexample of x p(x)
• A single counterexample is all we need to
establish that is not true
x p (x)
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Universal quantifier 

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Example
• Let p(x) be “x2>0”. To show that the statement
x p (x)is false where the domain consists of all
integers
> Show a counterexample (take x=0)
• When all the elements can be listed, e.g., x1, x2, …,
xn; it follows that the universal quantification
is same as thexconjunction
p (x) p(x1) ˄p(x2) ˄…˄
p(xn)

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Example
• What is the truth value of x p(x) where p(x)
is the statement “x2 < 10” and the domain
consists of positive integers not exceeding 4?
x p (x) is same as p(1)˄p(2)˄p(3)˄p(4)

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