SHDH1004 Creative and Critical

Thinking
創意與批判思考

LECTURE FIVE:
DEDUCTIVE REASONING (I)

114/03/12 1
 In today’s lesson,
We are going to learn:

1.What an argument is,

2.how to recognize arguments, and
3.some basic logical concepts, especially validity and soundness.

114/03/12 2
 Again: What is a statement?
A statement( 陳述句 / 述句 ) is a sentence( 句子 / 語句 ) which states that something is the case.

A statement
- has a truth value, i.e. either true or false.
- can be affirmed or denied.
- is the building block of an argument or inference.

E.g. It is raining.
There are five books on the desk.
陳方安生曾任香港公務員。

114/03/12 3
 Inference and Argument
Inference( 推理 ): An inference is a mental process of linking statements in
which a statement is claimed to be justified by other statements.

Argument( 論證 ): An argument is a group of statements in which one

statement is claimed to be justified by (or to follow from) other statements.

114/03/12 4
 Premise and Conclusion
Argument = Premise(s) + Conclusion
論證 前提 結論

Premise: The premise(s) of an argument is/are the statement(s) which is/are claimed to
justify ( 核證 ) another statement of this argument.

Conclusion: The conclusion of an argument is the statement which is claimed to be

justified by other statement(s) of this argument.

114/03/12 5
 The Relation between Premise and
Conclusion
According to what we just said, we may say that the premise(s) of an
argument is/(are) claimed to justify the conclusion.

Besides, we may also say the premise(s) of an argument is/(are) claimed to

provide ground or reason for the conclusion, or to give support to the
conclusion.

114/03/12 6
 The Standard Form of an
Argument
An argument is usually written in standard form( 標準式 ) as

Premise 1
Premise 2
Premise 3
……
---------------------
∴ Conclusion

114/03/12 7
 The Standard Form of an
Argument
For example :
所有人都會死 ( 前提 )
蘇格拉底是人 ( 前提 )
-----------------------------------
所以，蘇格拉底會死 ( 結論 )

All men are mortal. (premise)

Socrates is a man. (premise)
-----------------------------------
Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (conclusion)

114/03/12 8
 Recognizing Arguments
Not all collections of statements are arguments.

WHY?
An argument is a cluster of statements with a certain structure (which is
imposed by the intention of the claimer).
The statements have to relate to one another as Premises ( 前提 ) and
Conclusion ( 結論 ).

114/03/12 9
 Identifying Premises
The premises are the statements that are claimed to provide grounds or reasons for the
conclusion.

Premise Indicators:
Since, for, seeing that, inasmuch as, in view of the fact that, because, given that, being that,
as, as indicated by…

E.g. Having fun can be the spice of life but not its main course, because when it is over,
nothing of lasting value remains.

114/03/12 10
找出前提
前提指示詞：由於，基於，鑑於，因為，理由是，根據，依據，支持這看法的理由是…

E.g.
由於生命是神聖的，所以我們不應殺生。
我們不應殺生，因為生命是神聖的。

114/03/12 11
 Identifying Conclusion
Conclusion Indicators:
Therefore, hence, so, it follows that, that is why, wherefore, as a result, it suggests that,
thus, consequently, accordingly, for this reason, it shows that, it implies that, we may infer
that, it proves that…

E.g.
All human beings possess an inviolable dignity. Therefore, abortion is wrong.

Nick has published several books. So, he is rich.

114/03/12 12
 找出結論
結論指示詞：因此，所以，故此，根據以上理由，可下結論說…

E.g.
生命是神聖的。所以我們不應殺生。
生命是神聖的。因此我們不應殺生。

114/03/12 13
 Arguments are not…
Something counts as an argument: In particular, the followings are not
It is a group of two or more arguments:
statements. Reports
One of those statements (the Unsupported Assertions
conclusion) is claimed to be supported Conditional Statements (If-then
by the others (premises). statements)
The premises are claimed to be true. Explanations, etc.

114/03/12 14
 Reasons ( 理由 ) Vs Causes ( 原因 )
Reasons
Something that justifies a belief / an action.
“Why are homosexuals immoral?”
“It is because homosexuals are unnatural.”

Causes
Something that gives rise to / leads to subsequent events / situations.
“Why is there a landslide?”
“It is because it rained so heavily yesterday.”

114/03/12 15
 Argument ( 論證 ) Vs Causal
Explanation
( 因果解釋／因果說明 )
Causal explanation: claims to give the causes to account for why something is the case.

The fact that is to be explained is the Explanandum ( 被解釋項 ):

What is provided as explanation of this fact is the Explanans ( 解釋項 ).

E.g. 由於飽受情緒上的困擾 ，所以張國榮最終走上自殺這條路 。

Argument: claims to provide the reasons to justify why something is the case.
E.g. 由於未完全發育的人類胚胎也是人，所以墮胎等於殺人。

114/03/12 16
 Argument ( 論證 ) Vs Explanation
( 解釋 )
Questions to ask:

1.Does the speaker claim to point out the cause why an event occurs?
If yes → explanation.

2.Does the speaker intend to give reasons to justify that a statement is true?
If yes → argument.

114/03/12 17
 “P; therefore Q.” What’s the
status of Q?
If our aim is to establish the truth of some statement, Q, and we offer some
evidence, P , in support of Q, we may appropriately say “P; therefore Q”. In
this case we are giving an argument for Q, and P is our premise.

On the other hand, sometimes we may wish to give an account to explain how
Q occurs. Here also we may say “P; therefore Q” but in this case we are giving
not an argument for Q but an explanation of Q.

114/03/12 18
 Examples
Explanation: Argument:
1.Titanic sank because it struck an 1.He must be home. His car is in the
iceberg. driveway.
2.Dinosaurs became extinct because of 2.Capital punishment should be
the impact of a large asteroid. abolished because innocent people
3.I fell down because I tripped. may be mistakenly executed.

114/03/12 19
 Some difficult cases
Sometimes the passage might reasonably be interpreted as offering either an argument or an
explanation, depending on the context.
e.g. Jeremy will not come to the talk this evening since he will have an examination tomorrow.

Situations that the passage should be interpreted as an argument:

We try to guess whether Jeremy will come to the talk.
We try to provide a reason for our speculation.
We know that Jeremy never comes out at night before any examinations.
→Argument

114/03/12 20
 Some difficult cases
Sometimes the passage might reasonably be interpreted as offering either an argument or an
explanation, depending on the context.
e.g. Jeremy will not come to the talk this evening since he will have an examination tomorrow.

Situations that the passage should be interpreted as an explanation:

We think that the talk is so important that Jeremy should come to it.
He indeed decides not to come in order to prepare for the exam.
→Explanation

114/03/12 21
 Explanations? Arguments?
I ate an apple because I was hungry.

I am trading in my Ford Explorer for a Toyota Corolla because Corolla is more reliable and gets better gas
mileage.

「你為甚麼遲到 ? 」「因為我今早賴床了。」

因為前題假，所以這個論證不可信。

因為那天天氣太惡劣，造成遊行人數再創新低。

114/03/12 22
 Exercises
判斷以下文段是否包含論證：

1.據中廣網報道，前天中秋節中午，河北省辛集市王口鎮敬老院為老人做午飯慶祝佳節，但飯後不久，敬老院部分老人和職員出現中毒徵狀，已知最少 3 人死
亡， 14 人中毒，其中 5 人危殆。（摘自《明報》， 2005.9.20 中國社會版）

2.《寄生獸》是一部不朽的科幻漫畫。

3.跟性別、種族及膚色一樣，性傾向不可改變，縱使科學家依然在爭論究竟性傾向是先天抑或是後天的，然而，大部份研究指出性傾向踏入成年期之後，不能改變，
亦毋須改變；因此，性傾向根本屬於不可變身分，理應受到平等保障。（摘自 2005.09.26 ，《明報》，論壇）

114/03/12 23
 Exercises
4. Since God exists, God exists.

5. If God exists, then God exists.

6. 人哭泣、過敏、得了感冒，都會流鼻涕；大冷天等公車，也會流鼻涕。為甚麼呢？因為你周圍的空氣比鼻腔內的空氣溫度低得多，鼻
腔使冷空氣溫度上升，凝結成水氣，與黏液混合後，就成了鼻涕，由於重力作用而流出鼻腔。

114/03/12 24
 Good and Bad Arguments
A good argument:
1.all of its premises are true, and
2.the premises support the conclusion.

Let us first focus on 2.

What is it to say that the premises absolutely or conclusively support the conclusion.
前提絕對地／完全地／百分百支持著結論

114/03/12 25
 The Validity of an Argument
Definitions of valid and invalid argument:

An argument is valid if the conclusion is justified by ( or follows from) the

premises with necessity.

It is logically necessary that the conclusion is true if all the premises are true.
前提真，邏輯必然地結論亦真

114/03/12 26
 The Validity of an Argument
Or put differently, there is no logically possible situation in which all of the
premises are true and the conclusion is false.
邏輯上不可能前提全真而結論假

An argument is invalid if it is not valid.

Validity - 對確性 , valid - 對確 , invalid - 不對確

114/03/12 27
 The Validity of an Argument
An argument is invalid if the conclusion is not justified by (or follows from) the
premises with necessity, i.e.,
it is not logically necessary that the conclusion is true if all the premises are
true.
Or put differently, there is at least one logically possible situation in which all
of the premises are true and the conclusion is false.
至少有一個邏輯上可能情况前提全真而結論假

114/03/12 28
 Examples of Valid Arguments
(1) All men are mortal. (T) (3) All men are rich. (F)
Socrates is a man. (T) Socrates is a man. (T)
------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------
∴ Socrates is mortal. (T) ∴ Socrates is rich. (F)

(2) All men are bald. (F)

Socrates is a man. (T)
-------------------------------------------
∴ Socrates is bald. (T)

114/03/12 29
 Examples of Invalid Arguments
(1) Some men are bald. (T) (3) Some Chinese are handsome. (T)
Socrates is a man. (T) Socrates is a Chinese. (F)
------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------
∴ Socrates is bald. (T) ∴ Socrates is handsome. (F)

(2) Some Chinese are brave. (T) (4) Some men are rich. (T)
Socrates is a Chinese. (F) Socrates is a man. (T)
------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------
∴ Socrates is brave. (T) ∴ Socrates is rich. (F)

114/03/12 30
 Basic Characteristics of Validity
Validity refers to the logical connection between the premises and the
conclusion. It does not refer to the truth value (the contents) of the premises
and the conclusion.

The truth values of the premises and the conclusion alone do not determine
the validity of an argument.
But they can determine the invalidity of an argument when all the premises
are true and the conclusion false. (Can you explain why?)

114/03/12 31
 The Possible Combinations of Truth
Values of Premises and Conclusion for
a Valid Argument
According to the definition, a valid argument may have the
combination (1), (2) or (3) but not (4).

It is impossible for a valid argument to have all premises

true but the conclusion false.

114/03/12 32
 The Possible Combinations of Truth
Values of Premises and Conclusion for
an Invalid Argument
According to the definition, an invalid argument may have
any of the combinations (1), (2), (3) and (4).

114/03/12 33
 Further Characteristics of
Validity
A valid argument is truth-preserving, i.e. truth-in-truth-out,
since the case all premises true but conclusion false is ruled
out.

But, a valid argument ≠ a good argument.

114/03/12 34
 Further Characteristics of
Validity
e.g.
If men are from Mars and women are from Venus, then men and women are from
different planets.
Men are from Mars and women are from Venus.
------------------------------------------------------------------
∴ Men and women are from different planets.

It is a valid but not a good argument (= bad argument), since the second premise is false.

114/03/12 35
 Several Points still worth
noting…
The truth or falsity of an argument’s conclusion does not by itself determine
the validity of that argument.

The validity of an argument does not guarantee the truth of its conclusion.

If an argument is valid and its conclusion is false, then not all of its premises
are true.

114/03/12 36
 The Soundness of an Argument
Definitions of sound and unsound argument:

An argument is sound if it is valid and all premises are true.

An argument is unsound if it is not sound.

Soundness - 真確性 , sound - 真確 , unsound - 不真確

114/03/12 37
 The Soundness of an Argument
Sound = valid + all premises true
(Note that it is necessary that the conclusion of a sound argument is true.)

Unsound = not sound

either invalid or some premises false or both

114/03/12 38
 An Example of Sound Argument
1. All men are mortal. (T)
2. Einstein is a man. (T)
-----------------------------------
∴ 3. Einstein is mortal. (T)

Valid with all premises true.

114/03/12 39
 Main References and Suggested
Readings:
1. Ludwig Ying & Joseph So ed., Creative and Critical Thinking, chapter 3 & 4.
2. Critical Thinking Web [A02].
3. http://philosophy.hku.hk/think/arg/valid1.php
4. Joe Lau, An Introduction to Critical Thinking and Creativity: Think More, Think Better (Wiley, 2011).
Chapters 8-9.
5. 方子華等著：《批判思考》 (McGraw Hill, 2005: Chapter 3).
6. 貝剛毅：《思方導航——批判思考導論》香港：匯智出版 , 2012 〉 . Chapters 8-9.

114/03/12 40