Distributed System

Models and Enabling

Technologies

Module 1
In this chapter
• This chapter presents the evolutionary changes that have occurred in parallel, distributed,
and cloud computing over the past 30 years, driven by applications with variable workloads
and large data sets.
• We study both high-performance and high-throughput computing systems in parallel
computers appearing as computer clusters, service- oriented architecture, computational
grids, peer-to-peer networks, Internet clouds, and the Internet of Things.
• These systems are distinguished by their hardware architectures, OS platforms, processing
algorithms, communication protocols, and service models applied. We also introduce
essential issues on the scalability, performance, availability, security, and energy efficiency
in distributed systems.
Scalable Computing over the Internet

Scalability is the ability of a system, network, or process to handle a growing amount of

work in a capable manner or its ability to be enlarged to accommodate that growth.

For example, it can refer to the capability of a system to increase its total output under an
increased load when resources (typically hardware) are added.
The Age of Internet Computing
• Billions of people use the Internet every day. As a result, supercomputer sites and
large data centers must provide high-performance computing services to huge numbers of
Internet users concurrently Because of this high demand, high-performance computing
(HPC)applications is no longer optimal for measuring system performance.
• The emergence of computing clouds instead demands high-throughput computing (HTC)
systems built with parallel and distributed computing technologies.
The Platform Evolution
Computer technology has gone through five generations of development, with each
generation lasting from 10 to 20 years. Successive generations are overlapped in
about 10 years

1950-1970 Mainframe systems Built by IBM and

CDC
1960-1980 Low cost mini computers DEC Pdp11 and VAX
Series
1970-1990 Personal Computers with VLSI DOS PCs
Microprocessors
1980-2000 Huge number of Portable Microsoft, Intel
computers
HPC – High Performance
Computing
What is high-performance computing (HPC)?
HPC is a technology that uses clusters of powerful processors that work in parallel to
process massive, multidimensional data sets and solve complex problems at extremely high
speeds.
High-Performance Computing(HPC) is a computing technique to process computational
problems, and complex data and to perform scientific simulations. HPC systems consist of
considerably more number of processors or computer nodes, high-speed interconnects, and
specialized libraries and tools
Extra Reading -
https://www.techtarget.com/searchdatacenter/definition/high-performance-computing-HPC
HTC – High Throughput Computing
High Throughput Computing (HTC) is defined as a type of computing that aims to
run a large number of computational tasks using resources in parallel.
HTC systems consist of a distributed network of computers known as computing
clusters. These systems are used to schedule a large number of jobs effectively. HTC
majorly focuses on increasing the overall throughput of the system by running many
smaller size tasks parallelly
Advantages of HTC
Flexibility: HTC is more flexible and can be used for many computing tasks related
to business analytics and scientific research.
Cost-Effectiveness: HTC is more cost-effective as compared to the solutions offered
by High-Performance Computing(HTC) as it makes use of hardware and software that
is available and less expensive and performs more tasks.
Reliability: HTC systems are mostly designed to provide high reliability and make
sure that all tasks run efficiently even if any one of the individual components fails.
Resource Optimization: HTC also does proper resource allocation by ensuring that
all the resources that are available are efficiently used and accordingly increases the
value of computing resources that are available.
Disparate Systems
Disparate system or a disparate data system is a computer data processing system
that was designed to operate as a fundamentally distinct data processing system
without exchanging data or interacting with other computer data processing
systems.
Evolutionary trend
toward parallel,
distributed, and
cloud computing
with clusters,
MPPs, P2P
networks, grids,
clouds, web
services, and the
Internet of Things.
Advent of 3 new computing paradigms

1. RFiD – Radio Frequency Identification - refers to a wireless system comprised

of two components: tags and readers. The reader is a device that has one or more
antennas that emit radio waves and receive signals back from the RFID tag

2. GPS – Global Positioning Systems - a global navigation satellite system that

provides location, velocity and time synchronization. GPS is everywhere. You can find
GPS systems in your car, your smartphone and your watch. GPS helps you get where
you are going, from point A to point B.
3. IoT – Internet of Things - the collective network of connected devices and the
technology that facilitates communication between devices and the cloud, as well as
between the devices themselves. Example – Smartwatches, smart appliances.
Computing Paradigm Distinctions

• The high-technology community has argued for many years about the precise
definitions of centralized computing, parallel computing, distributed computing,
and cloud computing. In general, distributed computing is the opposite of
centralized computing.
• The field of parallel computing overlaps with distributed computing to a great
extent, and cloud computing overlaps with distributed, centralized, and
parallel computing
Centralized computing
This is a computing paradigm by which all computer resources are centralized
in one physical system. All resources (processors, memory, and storage) are fully
shared and tightly coupled within one integrated OS. Many data centers and
supercomputers are centralized systems, but they are used in parallel, distributed,
and cloud computing applications.
• One example of a centralized computing system is a traditional mainframe
system, where a central mainframe computer handles all processing and data
storage for the system. In this type of system, users access the mainframe
through terminals or other devices that are connected to it.
Parallel Computing
• It is the use of multiple processing elements simultaneously for solving any
problem. Problems are broken down into instructions and are solved concurrently
as each resource that has been applied to work is working at the same time.

• In parallel computing, all processors are either tightly coupled with centralized shared
memory or loosely coupled with distributed memory. Interprocessor communication is
accomplished through shared memory or via message passing.
 Distributed Computing
• Distributed computing is the method of making multiple computers work together
to solve a common problem. It makes a computer network appear as a powerful
single computer that provides large-scale resources to deal with complex
challenges.

• A distributed system consists of multiple autonomous computers, each having its own
private memory, communicating through a computer network. Information exchange in a
distributed system is accomplished through message passing.
Cloud Computing

An Internet cloud of resources can be either a

centralized or a distributed computing system. The
cloud applies parallel or distributed computing, or
both. Clouds can be built with physical or virtualized
resources over large data centers that are
centralized or distributed. Some authors consider
cloud computing to be a form of utility computing or
service computing
Scalable Computing and New Paradigms include
• Degrees of Parallelism
• Innovative Applications
• The Trend toward Utility Computing
• The Hype Cycle of New Technologies .
• Fifty years ago, when hardware was bulky and expensive, most computers were designed in a
bit-serial fashion.
• Data-level parallelism (DLP) was made popular through SIMD (single instruction, multiple data)
and vector machines using vector or array types of instructions. DLP requires even more
hardware support and compiler assistance to work properly.
Innovative Applications
• Both HPC and HTC systems desire transparency in many application aspects. For example,
data access, resource allocation, process location, concurrency in execution, job replication,
and failure recovery should be made transparent to both users and system management.
Applicatio
ns of HPS
and HTS
Systems
Trend towards Utility Computing
• Utility computing is defined as a service provisioning model that offers computing
resources to clients as and when they require them on an on-demand basis. The
charges are exactly as per the consumption of the services provided, rather than a
fixed charge or a flat rate.
• Utility computing focuses on a business model in which customers receive
computing resources from a paid service provider. All grid/cloud platforms are
regarded as utility service providers. However, cloud computing offers a broader
concept than utility computing
The vision of Computer Utilities in
modern distributed computing systems
From previous diagram
Previous diagram identifies major computing paradigms to facilitate the study of distributed
systems and their applications. These paradigms share some common characteristics.
 First, they are all present in daily life. Reliability and scalability are two major design
objectives in these computing models.
 Second, they are aimed at autonomic operations that can be self- organized to support
dynamic discovery.
The Hype cycle of new Technologies
Any new and emerging computing and information technology may go through a hype cycle,
Generally illustrated in Figure 1.3. This cycle shows the expectations for the technology at five
different stages.
The Hype cycle of new Technologies
The Internet of Things and Cyber-
Physical Systems
Internet of Things - The traditional Internet connects machines to machines or web
pages to web pages. The concept of the IoT was introduced in 1999 at MIT [40]. The
IoT refers to the networked interconnection of everyday objects, tools, devices, or
computers.
Cyber – Physical Systems
• A cyber-physical system (CPS) is the result of interaction between computational
processes and the physical world. A CPS integrates “cyber” (heterogeneous,
asynchronous) with “physical” (concurrent and information-dense) objects.
• Few examples of cyber-physical systems are, smart manufacturing facilities with
collaborative robots, autonomous vehicles utilizing sensors and AI for navigation,
smart grids optimizing energy distribution, implantable medical devices like
pacemakers providing automated therapy adjustments, and building automation
Technologies for network-based Systems

With the concept of scalable computing under our belt, it’s time to explore hardware,
software, and network technologies for distributed computing system design and
applications. We will focus on viable approaches to building distributed operating
systems for handling massive parallelism in a distributed environment.
Multicore CPUs and
Multithreading Technologies
Advances in CPU Processors - Today, advanced CPUs or microprocessor chips assume a
multicore architecture with dual, quad, six, or more processing cores.
• We see growth from 1 MIPS for the VAX 780 in 1978 to 1,800 MIPS for the Intel
Pentium 4 in 2002, up to a 22,000 MIPS peak for the Sun Niagara 2 in 2008.
• The clock rate for these processors increased from 10 MHz for the Intel 286 to 4
GHz for the Pentium 4 in 30 years.
• However, the clock rate reached its limit on CMOS-based chips due to power
limitations. At the time of this writing, very few CPU chips run with a clock rate
exceeding 5 GHz
Improvement
in processor
and network
technologies
over 33 years
Modern Multicore CPU Chip
• A multicore processor is an integrated circuit that has two or more processor cores
attached for enhanced performance and reduced power consumption. These
processors also enable more efficient simultaneous processing of multiple tasks,
such as with parallel processing and multithreading.
 Hierarchy of
Caches
Caches are relatively small areas of very fast
memory. A cache retains often-used instructions or
data, making that content readily available to the
core without the need to access system memory. A
processor checks the cache first. If the required
content is present, the core takes that content from
the cache, enhancing performance benefits. If the
content is absent, the core will access system
memory for the required content. A Level 1, or L1,
cache is the smallest and fastest cache unique to
every core. A Level 2, or L2, cache is a larger
storage space shared among the cores.
Important Terminologies
Clock Speed - Clock speed refers to the rate at which a computer's central
processing unit (CPU) executes instructions. It's often measured in hertz (Hz) and
indicates how many cycles the CPU can complete per second. A higher clock speed
generally means faster processing.
Hyper-threading - Another approach involved the handling of multiple instruction
threads. Intel calls this hyper-threading. With hyper-threading, processor cores are
designed to handle two separate instruction threads at the same time
ILP, TLP and DSP
• Instruction Level Parallelism(ILP) – Instruction-Level Parallelism (ILP) refers to the
technique of executing multiple instructions simultaneously within a CPU core by keeping
different functional units busy for different parts of instructions. It enhances performance
without requiring changes to the base code, allowing for the overlapping execution of
multiple instructions.
• Thread Level Parallelism(TLP) - Thread Level Parallelism (TLP) refers to the ability of a
computer system to execute multiple threads simultaneously, improving the overall
efficiency and performance of applications. TLP is a form of parallel computing where
different threads of a program are run concurrently, often on multiple processors or cores.
• What is DSP processor architecture? - is described which achieves high processing
efficiency by executing concurrently four functions in every processor cycle: instruction
prefetching from a dedicated instruction memory and generation of an effective operand,
access to a single-port data memory and transfer of a data word over a common data bus,
arithmetic/logic-unit (ALU) operation, and multiplication
CPU and GPU
A Central processing unit (CPU) is commonly known as the brain of the computer. It is a
conventional or general processor used for a wide range of operations encompassing the
system instructions to the programs. CPUs are designed for high-performance serial processing
which implies they are well-suited for performing large amounts of sequential tasks.

The Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) is designed for parallel processing, and it uses
dedicated memory known as VRAM (Video RAM). They are designed to tackle thousands of
operations at once for tasks like rendering images, 3D rendering, processing video, and
running machine learning models. It has it’s own memory separate from the system’s RAM
which allows them to handle complex, high-throughput tasks like rendering and AI processing
efficiently.
CPU and
GPU
Architectu
re
 Need for GPUs
• Both multi-core CPU and many-core GPU processors can handle multiple
instruction threads at different magnitudes today.
• Multicore CPUs may increase from the tens of cores to hundreds or more in the
future. But the CPU has reached its limit in terms of exploiting massive DLP due to
the aforementioned memory wall problem.
• This has triggered the development of many-core GPUs with hundreds or more thin
cores
 Multithreading Technology
• Multithreading is a form of parallelization or dividing up work for simultaneous
processing. Instead of giving a large workload to a single core, threaded programs
split the work into multiple software threads. These threads are processed in
parallel by different CPU cores to save time.
Five micro
architecture
s in modern
CPU
processors
Explanation
• The superscalar processor is single-threaded with four functional units. Each of the three
multithreaded processors is four-way multithreaded over four functional data paths. In
the dual-core processor, assume two processing cores, each a single-threaded two-way
superscalar processor.
• Instructions from different threads are distinguished by specific shading patterns for
instructions from five independent threads.
• Fine-grain multithreading switches the execution of instructions from different threads
per cycle.
• Course-grain multithreading executes many instructions from the same thread for quite
a few cycles before switching to another thread.
• The multicore CMP executes instructions from different threads completely.
• The SMT allows simultaneous scheduling of instructions from different threads in the
same cycle.
• The blank squares correspond to no available instructions for an instruction data path at
a particular processor cycle. More blank cells imply lower scheduling efficiency.
GPU Computing
• A GPU is a graphics coprocessor or accelerator mounted on a computer’s graphics
card or video
card.
• A GPU offloads the CPU from tedious graphics tasks in video editing applications.
• The world’s first GPU, the GeForce 256, was marketed by NVIDIA in 1999. These GPU
chips can process a minimum of 10 million polygons per second, and are used in
nearly every computer on the market today.
• Unlike CPUs, GPUs have a throughput architecture that exploits massive parallelism
by executing many concurrent threads slowly, instead of executing a single long
thread in a conventional microprocessor very quickly
Working of GPU
• Modern GPUs are not restricted to accelerated graphics or video coding. They are used in
HPC systems to power supercomputers with massive parallelism at multicore and
multithreading levels. GPUs are designed to handle large numbers of floating-point
operations in parallel.
• In a way, the GPU offloads the CPU from all data-intensive calculations, not just those that
are related to video processing. Conventional GPUs are widely used in mobile phones,
game consoles, embedded systems, PCs, and servers. The NVIDIA CUDA Tesla or Fermi is
used in GPU clusters or in HPC systems for parallel processing of massive floating-
pointing data..
• The GPU has a many-core architecture that has hundreds of simple processing cores
organized as multiprocessors. Each core can have one or more threads.
• The CPU instructs the GPU to perform massive data processing. The bandwidth must be
matched between the on-board main memory and the on-chip GPU memory. This process
is carried out in NVIDIA’s CUDA programming using the GeForce 8800 or Tesla and Fermi
GPUs.
The use of a GPU along
with a CPU for massively
parallel execution
Example 1.1
The NVIDIA
Fermi GPU
Chip with 512
CUDA Cores
NVIDIA
Present Day
- NVIDIA
A100
TENSOR
CORE GPU
 Power Efficiency of the GPU
• Bill Dally of Stanford University considers power and massive parallelism as the
major benefits of GPUs over CPUs for the future.
• By extrapolating current technology and computer architecture, it was estimated
that 60 Gflops/watt per core is needed to run an exaflops system.
• FLOP or floating point operations per second is a measure of performance,
meaning how fast the computer can perform calculations. GFLOP is simply a Giga
FLOP. So having GPU with 2 times higher GFLOP value is very likely to speed up the
training process.
• Today's massively parallel supercomputers are measured in teraflops (Tflops: 1012
flops)
GPU
Performan
ce
Memory, Storage, and Wide-Area
Networking
• Memory Wall Problem - The memory wall refers to the increasing gap between
processor speed and memory bandwidth, where the rate of improvement in
processor performance outpaces the rate of improvement in memory performance
due to limited I/O and decreasing signal integrity.
Memory
Technolo
gy
Memory and Storage
• The rapid growth of flash memory and solid-state drives (SSDs) also impacts the
future of HPC and HTC systems. The mortality rate of SSD is not bad at all.
• For hard drives, capacity increased from 260 MB in 1981 to 250 GB in 2004.
• A typical SSD can handle 300,000 to 1 million write cycles per block.
• Eventually, power consumption, cooling, and packaging will limit large system
development. Power increases linearly with respect to clock frequency and
quadratic ally with respect to voltage applied on chips.
Seagate – Present Day
System-Area Interconnects
• The nodes in small clusters are mostly interconnected by an Ethernet switch or a
local area network (LAN).
• LAN typically is used to connect client hosts to big servers.
• A storage area network (SAN) connects servers to network storage such as disk
arrays. Network attached storage (NAS) connects client hosts directly to the disk
arrays.
• All three types of networks often appear in a large cluster built with commercial
network components. If no large distributed storage is shared; a small cluster
could be built with a multiport Gigabit Ethernet switch plus copper cables to link
the end machines.
Virtual Machines and Virtualization Middleware

In its simplest form, a virtual machine, or VM, is a digitized version of a physical

computer. Virtual machines can run programs and operating systems, store data,
connect to networks, and do other computing functions. However, a VM uses entirely
virtual resources instead of physical components.
Virtual machines (VMs) offer novel solutions to underutilized resources,
application inflexibility, software manageability, and security concerns in
existing physical machines.
• Today, to build large clusters, grids, and clouds, we need to access large amounts of
computing, storage, and networking resources in a virtualized manner.
• We need to aggregate those resources, and hopefully, offer a single system image.
In particular, a cloud of provisioned resources must rely on virtualization of
processors, memory, and I/O facilities dynamically.
The three VM Architectures
Hypervisor - A hypervisor is a software that you can use to run multiple virtual
machines on a single physical machine. The hypervisor allocates the underlying
physical computing resources such as CPU and memory to individual virtual
machines as required. Hypervisor is a thin software layer running between Operating
System(OS) and system hardware that creates and runs virtual machines.
Eg - Vmware ESX and ESXi, Quick Emulator, Citrix XenServer, Microsoft Hyper-V,
Microsoft Virtual PC
Hypervisors are also known as VMM – Virtual Machine Monitor
Hypervis
or types
Types of Hypervisors
TYPE-1 Hypervisor: The hypervisor runs directly on the underlying host system. It is
also known as a “Native Hypervisor” or “Bare metal hypervisor”. It does not require
any base server operating system or part of it . It has direct access to hardware
resources.
Examples of Type 1 hypervisors include VMware ESXi, Citrix XenServer, and Microsoft
Hyper-V hypervisor.
TYPE-2 Hypervisor:
A Host operating system runs on the underlying host system. It is also known as
‘Hosted Hypervisor”. Such kind of hypervisors doesn’t run directly over the underlying
hardware rather they run as an application in a Host system(physical machine).
Basically, the software is installed on an operating system. Hypervisor asks the
operating system to make hardware calls.
An example of a Type 2 hypervisor includes VMware Player or Parallels Desktop.
The three VM Architectures
VMM Role
• The VMM provides the VM abstraction to the guest OS.
• With full virtualization, the VMM exports a VM abstraction identical to the physical machine
so that a standard OS such as Windows 2000 or Linux can run just as it would on the
physical hardware.
Multiplexing VMs Multiplexing: creates multiple
virtual objects from one instance
of a physical object. Many virtual
objects to one physical. Example -
a processor is multiplexed among
a number of processes or threads.
VM in Suspended When you suspend a VM, its
current state is stored in a file on

state the default storage repository

(SR). This feature allows you to
shut down the VM's host server.
After rebooting the server, you
can resume the VM and return it
to its original running state.
VM Provision from When you resume the virtual
suspended state(resume) machine, the operating system
and applications continue from
the same point you suspended
the virtual machine.
VM Migration Virtual machine (VM) migration
refers to the process of moving a
running VM from one physical
host machine to another, or from
one data center to another,
without disrupting the VM's
availability or performance.
VM Operations
• These VM operations enable a VM to be provisioned to any available hardware
platform. They also enable flexibility in porting distributed application executions.
• Furthermore, the VM approach will significantly enhance the utilization of server
resources.
• Multiple server functions can be consolidated on the same hardware platform to
achieve higher system efficiency. This will eliminate server sprawl via deployment
of systems as VMs, which move transparency to the shared hardware. With this
approach, VMware claimed that server utilization could be increased from its
current 5–15 percent to 60–80 percent.
Data
centres
over the
years
Data Center Virtualization for Cloud
Computing
Basic architecture and design considerations of data centers
- Popular x86 processors.
- Low-cost terabyte disks
- Gigabit Ethernet

Data center design emphasizes the performance/price ratio over speed

performance alone. In other words, storage and energy efficiency are more
important than shear speed performance.
Data Center Growth and Cost Breakdown
• A large data center may be built with thousands of servers. Smaller data centers are
typically built with hundreds of servers. The cost to build and maintain data center servers
has increased over the years.
• Typically, only 30 percent of data center costs goes toward purchasing IT equipment (such
as servers and disks)
• 33 percent is attributed to the chiller, 18 percent to the uninterruptible power supply
(UPS), 9 percent to computer room air conditioning (CRAC), and the remaining 7 percent to
power distribution, lighting, and transformer costs.
• Thus, about 60 percent of the cost to run a data center is allocated to management and
maintenance. The server purchase cost did not increase much with time. The cost of
electricity and cooling did increase from 5 percent to 14 percent in 15 years.
• Further Reading-
https://granulate.io/blog/understanding-data-center-costs-and-how-they-compare-to-the-clo
ud/
SYSTEM MODELS FOR DISTRIBUTED AND
CLOUD COMPUTING
• Distributed and cloud computing systems are built over a large number of autonomous
computer nodes. These node machines are interconnected by SANs, LANs, or WANs in a
hierarchical manner. With today’s networking technology, a few LAN switches can easily
connect hundreds of machines as a working cluster
• A WAN can connect many local clusters to form a very large cluster of clusters. In this
sense, one can build a massive system with millions of computers connected to edge
networks.
• Massive systems are considered highly scalable, and can reach web-scale connectivity,
either physically or logically.
• massive systems are classified into four groups: clusters, P2P networks, computing
grids, and Internet clouds over huge data centers.
Classificatio
n of Parallel
and
Distributed
Computing
 In a computer system, a Cluster is a group
Cluster Architecture of servers and other resources that act like a
single system and enable high availability,
load balancing and parallel processing.
These systems can range from a two-node
system of two personal computers (PCs) to a
supercomputer that has a cluster
architecture.
• Cluster computing is a form of distributed
computing that is like parallel or grid
computing but categorized in a class of its
own because of its many advantages,
such as high availability, load balancing,
and HPC.
SSI – Single System Image in Cluster
• SSI - An SSI is an illusion created by software or hardware that presents a
collection of resources as one integrated, powerful resource.
• SSI makes the cluster appear like a single machine to the user. A cluster with
multiple system images is nothing but a collection of independent computers.
• Cluster designers desire a cluster operating system or some middleware to
support SSI at various levels, including the sharing of CPUs, memory, and I/O
across all cluster nodes.
Issues with Cluster Design
1. High cost
It is not so much cost-effective due to its high hardware and its design.
2. Problem in finding fault
It is difficult to find which component has a fault.
3. More space is needed
Infrastructure may increase as more servers are needed to manage and monitor.
4. Software updates and maintenance.
5. Unfortunately, a cluster-wide OS for complete resource sharing is not available yet.
6. The software environments and applications must rely on the middleware to achieve
high performance
Peer to Peer Networks • Peer-to-peer (P2P) is defined as a
decentralized network architecture in
which participants, called peers,
interact directly with each other
without the need for a central authority
or server.
• In a P2P network, each participant acts
as both a client and a server, enabling
them to share resources and services
directly with other peers.
Peer to peer network
• Peer machines are simply client computers connected to the Internet. All client
machines act autonomously to join or leave the system freely. This implies that no
master-slave relationship exists among the peers.
• No central coordination or central database is needed. In other words, no peer
machine has a global view of the entire P2P system. The system is self-organizing
with distributed control.
• Initially, the peers are totally unrelated. Each peer machine joins or leaves the P2P
network voluntarily. Only the participating peers form the physical network at any
time. Unlike the cluster or grid, a P2P network does not use a dedicated
interconnection network.
Overlay and Underlay Networks
Underlay Network is the physical network infrastructure that provides the
foundation for overlay network. Underlay network is responsible for forwarding data
packets and are optimized for high performance and low latency.
In contrast, an overlay network is a virtual network that is built on top of the
underlay network
Overlay Networks – • Data items or files are
Peer to Peer distributed in the participating
peers. Based on
communication or file-sharing
needs, the peer IDs form an
overlay network at the logical
level. This overlay is a virtual
network formed by mapping
each physical machine with its
ID, logically, through a virtual
mapping
P2P – Application categories
 P2P – Computing Challenges
• P2P computing faces three types of heterogeneity problems in hardware, software,
and network requirements.
• P2P performance is affected by routing efficiency and self-organization by
participating peers. Fault tolerance, failure management, and load balancing are
other important issues in using overlay networks.
• Lack of trust among peers poses another problem. Peers are strangers to one
another. Security, privacy, and copyright violations are major worries by those in the
industry in terms of applying P2P technology in business applications.
• Because the system is not centralized, managing it is difficult. In addition, the
system lacks security. Anyone can log on to the system and cause damage or abuse.
 What is a Grid?
Consider Electric Grids - The electrical grid is the intricate system designed to
provide electricity all the way from its generation to the customers that use it for their
daily needs. These systems have grown from small local designs, to stretching
thousands of kilometers and connecting millions of homes and businesses today.
Computation Grid
Grid computing is a computing infrastructure that combines computer resources
spread over different geographical locations to achieve a common goal. All unused
resources on multiple computers are pooled together and made available for a single
task.
• Grid technology demands new distributed computing models, software/middleware
support, network protocols, and hardware infrastructures. National grid projects are
followed by industrial grid platform development by IBM, Microsoft, Sun, HP, Dell,
Cisco, EMC, Platform Computing, and others
Example of Grid • Computational grid built over
multiple resource sites owned
by different organizations. The
resource sites offer
complementary computing
resources, including
workstations, large servers, a
mesh of processors, and Linux
clusters to satisfy a chain of
computational needs.
• The grid is built across various
IP broadband networks
including LANs and WANs
already used by enterprises or
organizations over the Internet.
The grid is presented to users
as an integrated resource pool
Two Grid computing Infrastructures
 Advantages of Grid Computing

• Grid Computing provide high resources utilization.

• Grid Computing allow parallel processing of task.
• Grid Computing is designed to be scalable.
Disadvantages of Grid Computing

• The software of the grid is still in the evolution stage.

• Grid computing introduce Complexity.
• Limited Flexibility
• Security Risks
Difference between Grid Cloud Computing and Grid

and Cloud Computing Computing are two model in

distributed computing. They are
used for different purposes and
have different architectures.
Cloud Computing is the use of
remote servers to store,
manage, and process data
rather than using local servers
while Grid Computing can be
defined as a network of
computers working together
to perform a task that would
rather be difficult for a single
machine.
Cloud Computing over the Internet
• Cloud computing has been defined differently by many users and designers. For
example, IBM, a major player in cloud computing, has defined it as follows: “A cloud
is a pool of virtualized computer resources. A cloud can host a variety of
different workloads, including batch-style backend jobs and interactive and
user-facing applications.”
• Based on this definition, a cloud allows workloads to be deployed and scaled out
quickly through rapid provisioning of virtual or physical machines.
• The cloud supports redundant, self-recovering, highly scalable programming models
that allow workloads to recover from many unavoidable hardware/software failures.
Finally, the cloud system should be able to monitor resource use in real time to enable
rebalancing of allocations when needed.
 Internet Clouds
• Cloud computing applies a virtualized platform with elastic resources on demand by
provisioning hardware, software, and data sets dynamically.
• The idea is to move desktop computing to a service-oriented platform using server
clusters and huge databases at data centers.
• Cloud computing leverages its low cost and simplicity to benefit both users and
providers..
• Cloud computing intends to satisfy many user applications simultaneously.
• The cloud ecosystem must be designed to be secure, trustworthy, and dependable.
 The Cloud Landscape
• Traditionally, a distributed computing system tends to be owned and operated by an
autonomous administrative domain (e.g., a research laboratory or company) for on-
premises computing needs.
• However, these traditional systems have encountered several performance
bottlenecks: constant system maintenance, poor utilization, and increasing costs
associated with hardware/software upgrades
• Cloud computing as an on-demand computing paradigm resolves or relieves
us from these problems.
 3 Cloud Service Models
• Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) - This model puts together infrastructures
demanded by
users—namely servers, storage, networks, and the data center fabric. The user can
deploy and
run on multiple VMs running guest OSes on specific applications. The user does not
manage or
control the underlying cloud infrastructure, but can specify when to request and
release the
needed resources.

Example – AWS, Azure, GCP

PaaS
Platform as a Service (PaaS) This model enables the user to deploy user-built applications
onto a virtualized cloud platform. PaaS includes middleware, databases, development tools, and
some runtime support such as Web 2.0 and Java. The platform includes both hardware and
software integrated with specific programming interfaces. The provider supplies the API and
software tools (e.g., Java, Python, Web 2.0, .NET). The user is freed from managing the cloud
infrastructure.

Example – Salesforce,
SaaS

Software as a Service (SaaS) This refers to browser-initiated application software over

thousands of paid cloud customers. The SaaS model applies to business processes, industry
applications, consumer relationship management (CRM), enterprise resources planning (ERP),
human resources (HR), and collaborative applications. On the customer side, there is no upfront
investment in servers or software licensing. On the provider side, costs are rather low, compared
with conventional hosting of user applications.

Example – Slack, Zoom, DocuSign

Modes in
Cloud
Private Cloud
Public Cloud
Managed Cloud
Hybrid Cloud -
 Private Cloud
The private cloud is defined as computing services
offered either over the Internet or a private internal
network and only to select users instead of the
public.
The Privacy Cloud is a safe, controlled environment
for brands, partners, and platforms to securely bring
their data together for joint analysis based on
defined guidelines and configurations.
Example - you can also run a virtual private cloud
on AWS using Amazon Virtual Private Cloud (Amazon
VPC)
HPE. Hewlett Packard Enterprise (HPE) has been a
leader in the private cloud computing market for
many years. ...
Public Cloud The public cloud is defined as computing
services offered by third-party providers
over the public Internet, making them
available to anyone who wants to use or
purchase them. They may be free or sold
on-demand, allowing customers to pay only
per usage for the CPU cycles, storage, or
bandwidth they consume.
Example - Public cloud platforms, such as
Google Cloud, pool resources in distributed
data centers around the world that multiple
companies and users can access from the
internet. Rather than an in-house team, the
public cloud providers are responsible for
managing and maintaining the underlying
infrastructure.
 Managed Cloud
Managed cloud services enable you to deploy
additional resources on an as-needed basis and pay
only for the additional resources you use. This
means you can quickly and easily provision
resources to adapt to changing business
requirements without the expense of purchasing
additional resources and infrastructure.
Example - AWS
 Hybrid Cloud
A hybrid cloud is a mixed computing environment where
applications are run using a combination of computing,
storage, and services in different environments—public
clouds and private clouds, including on-premises data
centers or “edge” locations.
Example - Netflix uses a hybrid cloud model to store and
manage large amounts of video content and handle spikes
in demand. Netflix uses a public cloud provider to organize
its massive catalog of content and to track users, their
preferences, what they watch, and what they click on.
Also, Hulu, Uber and Airbnb all rely heavily on hybrid
cloud data storage due to its on-demand and pay-per-use
features. Netflix and Hulu experience spikes in bandwidth
demand when a new binge-able series debuts on their
respective platforms.
 Advantages of Cloud
1. Desired location in areas with protected space and higher energy efficiency
2. Sharing of peak-load capacity among a large pool of users, improving overall utilization
3. Separation of infrastructure maintenance duties from domain-specific application development
4. Significant reduction in cloud computing cost, compared with traditional computing paradigms
5. Cloud computing programming and application development
6. Service and data discovery and content/service distribution
7. Privacy, security, copyright, and reliability issues
8. Service agreements, business models, and pricing policies
Software Environments for Distributed systems
and Clouds
What is Service Oriented Architecture(SOA)?
• SOA is an architectural approach in which applications make use of services available in
the network.
• In this architecture, services are provided to form applications, through a network call
over the internet. It uses common communication standards to speed up and streamline
the service integrations in applications.
• Each service in SOA is a complete business function. The services are published in such a
way that it makes it easy for the developers to assemble their apps using those services.
• SOA is built on the traditional seven Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) layers that
provide the base networking abstractions
SOA In SOA, applications are built as interconnected services
that can operate independently or as part of a larger
system. These services communicate using standardized
protocols like REST, SOAP, or XML, making them reusable
and scalable.
Multiple technologies can be used to implement SOA
Architecture, depending on the business needs and the
end goal in sight. The central design paradigm focuses
on some form of web services that allow the core
components to be accessible to each other over standard
internet protocols.

One of the most popular such instances is SOAP, which is

short for Simple Object Access Protocol. It has gained
popularity since 2003 and has become the go-to
standard for creating SOA applications.
Layered Architecture
Layered Architecture – Communication Systems
Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP) specification is a set of rules that describe how to format and
exchange information between web services and also access web services.

Remote Method Invocation( RMI). It is a mechanism that allows an object residing in one system (JVM) to
access/invoke an object running on another JVM. RMI is used to build distributed applications; it provides
remote communication between Java programs. It is provided in the package java. rmi.

IIOP (Internet Inter-ORB Protocol) is a protocol that makes it feasible for distributed
applications written in various programming languages to interact over the Internet. IIOP is a
vital aspect of a major industry standard, the Common Object Request Broker Architecture
(CORBA) (CORBA)
Evolution of SOA- Service oriented architecture

• SOA is an architectural approach in which applications make use of services available in

the network.
• SOA applies to building grids, clouds, grids of clouds, clouds of grids, clouds of clouds (also
known as interclouds), and systems of systems in general.
• many sensors provide data-collection services, denoted in the figure as SS (sensor
service).
• SOA allows users to combine many facilities from existing services to form applications.
• SOA encompasses a set of design principles that structure system development and
provide means for integrating components into a coherent and decentralized system.
• SOA-based computing packages functionalities into a set of interoperable services, which
can be integrated into different software systems belonging to separate business domains.
 Characteristics of SOA
o Provides interoperability between the services.
o Provides methods for service encapsulation, service discovery, service composition,
service reusability and service integration.
o Facilitates QoS (Quality of Services) through service contract based on Service Level
Agreement (SLA).
o Provides loosely couples services.
o Provides location transparency with better scalability and availability.
o Ease of maintenance with reduced cost of application development and
deployment.
Evolution
of SOA
 High Level working of SOA
• Many sensors provide data-collection services, denoted in the figure as SS (sensor service).
• A sensor can be a ZigBee device, a Bluetooth device, a WiFi access point, a personal computer, a GPA,
or a wireless phone, among other things. Raw data is collected by sensor services.
• All the SS devices interact with large or small computers, many forms of grids, databases, the
compute cloud, the storage cloud, the filter cloud, the discovery cloud, and so on.
• All the SS devices interact with large or small computers, many forms of grids, databases, the
compute cloud, the storage cloud, the filter cloud, the discovery cloud, and so on.
• Filter services are used to eliminate unwanted raw data, in order to respond to specific requests from
the web, the grid, or web services.
• SOA aims to search for, or sort out, the useful data from the massive amounts of raw data items.
• Processing this data will generate useful information, and subsequently, the knowledge for our daily
use.
• Most distributed systems require a web interface or portal. For raw data collected by a large number
of sensors to be transformed into useful information or knowledge, the data stream may go through a
sequence of compute, storage, filter, and discovery clouds.
Grid Vs Cloud
• The boundary between grids and clouds are getting blurred in recent years. For web
services, workflow technologies are used to coordinate or orchestrate services with
certain specifications used to define critical business process models such as two-
phase transactions.
• In general, a grid system applies static resources, while a cloud emphasizes elastic
resources. For some researchers, the differences between grids and clouds are
limited only in dynamic resource allocation based on virtualization and autonomic
computing. One can build a grid out of multiple clouds. This type of grid can do a
better job than a pure cloud, because it can explicitly support negotiated resource
allocation.
Trends towards distributed Operating
Systems.
• The computers in most distributed systems are loosely coupled.
• Thus, a distributed system inherently has multiple system images. This is mainly
due to the fact that all node machines run with an independent operating system..
• To promote resource sharing and fast communication among node machines, it is
best to have a distributed OS that manages all resources coherently and
efficiently.
• Such a system is most likely to be a closed system, and it will likely rely on
message passing and RPCs for internode communications
Distributed Operating System
A Distributed Operating System refers to a model in which applications run on
multiple interconnected computers, offering enhanced communication and
integration capabilities compared to a network operating system.
In a Distributed Operating System, multiple CPUs are utilized, but for end-users, it
appears as a typical centralized operating system. It enables the sharing of various
resources such as CPUs, disks, network interfaces, nodes, and computers across
different sites, thereby expanding the available data within the entire system.
Feature
comparis
on of
Distribut
ed OS
Parallel and Distributed Programming Models
Message Passing Interface(MPI)
• The Message Passing Interface (MPI) is an Application Program Interface that
defines a model of parallel computing where each parallel process has its own
local memory, and data must be explicitly shared by passing messages between
processes.
• MPI is the most popular programming model for message-passing systems.
Google’s MapReduce and BigTable are for effective use of resources from Internet
clouds and data centers. Service clouds demand extending Hadoop, EC2, and S3
to facilitate distributed computing over distributed storage systems.
Parallel and Distributed Programming Models
and Tool sets
MapReduce
• MapReduce is a Java-based, distributed execution framework within the Apache Hadoop
Ecosystem.
• This is a web programming model for scalable data processing on large clusters over large
data sets.
• The model is applied mainly in web-scale search and cloud computing applications. The user
specifies a Map function to generate a set of intermediate key/value pairs. Then the user
applies a Reduce function to merge all intermediate values with the same intermediate key.

• More on Apache Hadoop -

https://www.spiceworks.com/tech/big-data/articles/what-is-map-reduce/#:~:text=What%20Is%
20MapReduce%3F-,MapReduce%20is%20a%20big%20data%20analysis%20model%20that%2
0processes%20data,process%20enormous%20volumes%20of%20data
MapReduce MapReduce is a big data analysis
model that processes data sets using a
parallel algorithm on computer clusters,
typically Apache Hadoop clusters or
cloud systems like Amazon Elastic
MapReduce (EMR) clusters. A software
framework and programming model called
MapReduce is used to process enormous
volumes of data.
Hadoop Library
• Hadoop offers a software platform that was originally developed by a Yahoo! group.
The package enables users to write and run applications over vast amounts of
distributed data.
• Users can easily scale Hadoop to store and process petabytes of data in the web
space. Also, Hadoop is economical in that it comes with an many version of
MapReduce that minimizes overhead in task spawning and massive data
communication.
• It is efficient, as it processes data with a high degree of parallelism across a large
number of commodity nodes, and it is reliable in that it automatically keeps multiple
data copies to facilitate redeployment of computing tasks upon unexpected system
failures.
Grid standards and toolkits for
scientific and engineering applications
Performance, Security and Energy efficiency

Performance metrics are needed to measure various distributed systems. In this

section, we will discuss various dimensions of scalability and performance laws. Then
we will examine system scalability against OS images and the limiting factors
encountered.
Performance Metrices
• System throughput is often measured in MIPS, Tflops (tera floating-point
operations per second), or TPS (transactions per second). Other measures include
job response time and network latency.
• An interconnection network that has low latency and high bandwidth is preferred.
System overhead is often attributed to OS boot time, compile time, I/O data rate,
and the runtime support system used.
• Other performance-related metrics include the QoS for Internet and web services;
system availability and dependability; and security resilience for system defense
against network attacks.
Dimensions of Scalibility
• Scaling is the ability to adjust the number of resources a system has to meet
changing demands. This can be done by increasing or decreasing the size or
power of an IT resource.
• Users want to have a distributed system that can achieve scalable performance.
Any resource upgrade in a system should be backward compatible with existing
hardware and software resources.
• Overdesign may not be cost-effective. System scaling can increase or decrease
resources depending on many practical factors
Size Scalability
• This refers to achieving higher performance or more functionality by increasing the
machine size. The word “size” refers to adding processors, cache, memory,
storage, or I/O channels.
Software Scalability
• This refers to upgrades in the OS or compilers, adding mathematical and engineering
libraries, porting new application software, and installing more user-friendly programming
environments. Some software upgrades may not work with large system configurations.
Testing and fine-tuning of new software on larger systems is a nontrivial job.
Application scalability
This refers to matching problem size scalability with machine size scalability. Problem
size affects the size of the data set or the workload increase. Instead of increasing
machine size, users can enlarge the problem size to enhance system efficiency or
cost-effectiveness.
Technology scalability
• This refers to a system that can adapt to changes in building technologies, such as
the component and networking technologies.
• When scaling a system design with new technology one must consider three
aspects: time, space, and heterogeneity.
(1) Time refers to generation scalability. When changing to new-generation
processors, one must consider the impact to the motherboard, power supply,
packaging and cooling, and so forth. Based on past experience, most systems
upgrade their commodity processors every three to five years.
(2) Space is related to packaging and energy concerns. Technology scalability
demands harmony and portability among suppliers.
(3) Heterogeneity refers to the use of hardware components or software packages
from different vendors. Heterogeneity may limit the scalability.
System Scalability Vs OS Image count
• Scalable performance implies that the system can achieve higher speed by adding
more processors or servers, enlarging the physical node’s memory size, extending
the disk capacity or adding more I/O channels.
• The OS image is counted by the number of independent OS images
observed in a cluster, grid, P2P network, or the cloud.
• An SMP (symmetric multiprocessor) server has a single system image, which could
be a single node in a large cluster.
• As of 2010, the largest cloud was able to scale up to a few thousand VMs.
NUMA
• NUMA (nonuniform memory access) machines are often made out of SMP nodes with
distributed, shared memory.
• A NUMA machine can run with multiple operating systems, and can scale to a few
thousand processors communicating with the MPI library.
• For example, a NUMA machine may have 2,048 processors running 32 SMP operating
systems, resulting in 32 OS images in the 2,048-processor NUMA system. The cluster
nodes can be either SMP servers or high-end machines that are loosely coupled
together.
• The grid node could be a server cluster, or a mainframe, or a supercomputer, or an
MPP. Therefore, the number of OS images in a large grid structure could be hundreds
or thousands fewer than the total number of processors in the grid.
Multiplicity of OS images in a system
Amdahl’s Law
• Amdahl's law is a formula that estimates how much faster a task can be
completed when a system's resources are improved.
• It is often used in parallel computing to predict the theoretical speedup when using
multiple processors.
• Speedup- Speedup is defined as the ratio of performance for the entire task using
the enhancement and performance for the entire task without using the
enhancement
• Pe is the performance for the entire task using the enhancement when possible.
• Pw is the performance for the entire task without using the enhancement
• Ew is the execution time for the entire task without using the enhancement
• Ee is the execution time for the entire task using the enhancement when possible
Amdahl’s
Law

Therefore Speedup =
Pe/Pw or Speedup =
Ew/Ee
Amdahl’s Law
The formula for Amdahl’s law is:
S = 1 / (1 – P + (P / N))
Where:
S is the speedup of the system
P is the proportion of the system that can be improved
N is the number of processors in the system
For example, if a system has a single bottleneck that occupies 20% of the total execution time, and
we add 4 more processors to the system, the speedup would be:

S = 1 / (1 – 0.2 + (0.2 / 5))

S = 1 / (0.8 + 0.04)
S = 1 / 0.84
S = 1.19
This means that the overall performance of the system would improve by about 19% with the
addition of the 4 processors. It’s important to note that Amdahl’s law assumes that the rest of the
system is able to fully utilize the additional processors, which may not always be the case in
practice.
 Disadvantages of Amdahl’s Law
• Assumes that the portion of the program that cannot be parallelized is fixed, which may not be
the case in practice. For example, it is possible to optimize code to reduce the portion of the
program that cannot be parallelized, making Amdahl’s law less accurate.
• Assumes that all processors have the same performance characteristics, which may not be the
case in practice. For example, in a heterogeneous computing environment, some processors
may be faster than others, which can affect the potential speedup that can be achieved.
• Does not take into account other factors that can affect the performance of parallel programs,
such as communication overhead and load balancing. These factors can impact the actual
speedup that is achieved in practice, which may be lower than the theoretical maximum
predicted by Amdahl’s law.
• Application of Amdahl’s law - Amdahl’s law can be used when the workload is fixed,
as it calculates the potential speedup with the assumption of a fixed workload.
Moreover, it can be utilized when the non-parallelizable portion of the task is
relatively large, highlighting the diminishing returns of parallelization.
Gustafson’s Law
Gustafson's law is a principle in computer architecture that describes how
parallel computing can speed up the execution of a task.
• Gustafson’s law/(Gustafson-Barsis’s law) addresses shortcomings of the Amdahl’s
law, which is based on the assumption of a fixed problem size and increase in
resources does not improve the workload
• Gustafson’s Law states that by increasing the problem size, we can increase
the scalability and make use of all the resources you have.
• By increasing resources and problem size, speed will theoretically be a linear.
The amount of speed we get is still be determined by the ratio of how much of
our problem is parallelized and how much is sequential
Gustafson’s Law
Gustafson’s Law
Gustafson’s Law Applications - Gustafson’s law is applicable when the
workload or problem size can be scaled proportionally with the available
resources. It also addresses problems requiring larger problem sizes or
workloads, promoting the development of systems capable of handling
such realistic computations.
 System Availability

HA (high availability) is desired in all clusters, grids, P2P networks, and cloud
systems. A system is highly available if it has a long mean time to failure (MTTF) and
a short mean time to repair (MTTR). System availability is formally defined as follows:

System Availability =MTTF/(MTTF +MTTR)

 System Availability

• Symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) - The SMP databases/applications can run

on multiple servers and share resources in cluster configurations.
• massively parallel processing (MPP) - An MPP system has its dedicated
resources and shares nothing, while the SMP counterpart shares the same
resources.
• NUMA may refer to Non-Uniform Memory Access - Non-uniform memory
access, or NUMA, is a method of configuring a cluster of microprocessors in a
multiprocessing system so they can share memory locally. The idea is to improve
the system's performance and allow it to expand as processing needs evolve.
System Availability
 Network Threats and Data Security
• Network viruses have threatened many users in widespread attacks. These incidents
have created a worm epidemic by pulling down many routers and servers, and are
responsible for the loss of billions of dollars in business, government, and services.
• Information leaks lead to a loss of confidentiality.
• Loss of data integrity may be caused by user alteration, Trojan horses, and service
spoofing attacks. A denial of service (DoS) results in a loss of system operation and
Internet connections
• Lack of authentication or authorization leads to attackers’ illegitimate use of
computing resources. Open resources such as data centers, P2P networks, and grid
and cloud infrastructures could become the next targets. Users need to protect
clusters, grids, clouds, and P2P systems. Otherwise, users should not use or trust
them for outsourced work
Security Responsibility
• Three security requirements are often considered: confidentiality, integrity,
and availability for most Internet service providers and cloud users.
• Collusive piracy is the main source of intellectual property violations within the
boundary of a P2P network. Paid clients (colluders) may illegally share copyrighted
content files with unpaid clients (pirates).
Various system attacks and network threats
to the cyberspace, resulting 4 types of losses
System defence technologies
Three generations of network defense technologies have appeared in the past.
• In the first generation tools were designed to prevent or avoid intrusions.
These tools usually manifested themselves a access control policies or tokens,
cryptographic systems, and so forth. However, an intruder could always
penetrate a secure system because there is always a weak link in the security
provisioning process
• The second generation detected intrusions in a timely manner to exercise remedial
actions. These techniques included firewalls, intrusion detection systems
(IDSes), PKI services, reputation systems, and so on
• The third generation provides more intelligent responses to intrusions
Energy consumption of Unused servers
• To run a server farm (data center) a company has to spend a huge amount of money
for hardware, software, operational support, and energy every year. Therefore,
companies should thoroughly identify whether their installed server farm (more
specifically, the volume of provisioned resources) is at an appropriate level,
particularly in terms of utilization.
• It was estimated in the past that, on average, one-sixth (15 percent) of the full-time
servers in a company are left powered on without being actively used (i.e., they are
idling) on a daily basis. This indicates that with 44 million servers in the world,
around 4.7 million servers are not doing any useful work.
• This amount of wasted energy is equal to 11.8 million tons of carbon dioxide per
year, which is equivalent to the CO pollution of 2.1 million cars. In the United States,
this equals 3.17 million tons of carbon dioxide, or 580,678 cars. Therefore, the first
step in IT departments is to analyze their servers to find unused and/or underutilized
servers.
Reducing
energy in
Active
Servers in
All layers
Application Layer
• By introducing energy-aware applications, the challenge is to design sophisticated
multilevel and multi-domain energy management applications without hurting
performance.
• The first step toward this end is to explore a relationship between performance
and energy consumption. Indeed, an application’s energy consumption depends
strongly on the number of instructions needed to execute the application and the
number of transactions with the storage unit (or memory). These two factors
(compute and storage) are correlated and they affect completion time.
Middleware Layer
• The middleware layer acts as a bridge between the application layer and the
resource layer. This layer provides resource broker, communication service, task
analyzer, task scheduler, security access, reliability control, and information
service capabilities.
• Until recently, scheduling was aimed at minimizing makespan, that is, the
execution time of a set of tasks. Distributed computing systems necessitate a new
cost function covering both makespan and energy consumption.
 Resource Layer
• The resource layer consists of a wide range of resources including computing nodes and
storage units.
• This layer generally interacts with hardware devices and the operating system; therefore,
it is responsible for controlling all distributed resources in distributed computing systems.
• Dynamic power management (DPM) and dynamic voltage-frequency scaling (DVFS) are
two popular methods incorporated into recent computer hardware systems.
• In DPM, hardware devices, such as the CPU, have the capability to switch from idle mode
to one or more lower power modes.
• In DVFS, energy savings are achieved because the power consumption in
CMOS(Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor) circuits has a direct relationship with
frequency and the square of the voltage supply. Execution time and power consumption
are controllable by switching among different frequencies and voltages
Network Layer
• Routing and transferring packets and enabling network services to the resource
layer are the main responsibility of the network layer in distributed computing
systems.
• The major challenge to build energy-efficient networks is, again, determining how
to measure, predict, and create a balance between energy consumption and
performance. Two major challenges to designing energy-efficient networks are:
1. The models should represent the networks comprehensively as they should give a full
understanding of interactions among time, space, and energy.
2. New, energy-efficient routing algorithms need to be developed. New, energy-efficient
protocols
should be developed against network attacks