Scan Converting a Circle

 A circle is a symmetrical figure.

Any circle-generating algorithm
can take advantage of the circle's
 symmetry to plot eight points for
each value that the algorithm
calculates. Eight-way symmetry is
used by
 reflecting each calculated point
around each 45° axis. For
example, if point 1 in Fig. 3-4
were calculated
 with a circle algorithm, seven
more points could be found by
reflection.
Defining a Circle
 There are two standard methods of mathematically defining a
circle centered at the origin. The first method defines a circle
with the second-order polynomial equation

y2=r2-x2

where x = the x coordinate

y = the y coordinate

r = the circle radius

 With this method, each x coordinate in the sector from 90° to

45°, is found by stepping x from 0 to

r/sqrt(2), and each y coordinate is found by evaluating sqrt(r2 — x2)

for each step of x.

 This is a very inefficient method, however, because for each

point both x and r must be squared and subtracted from each
other; then the square root of the result must be found.
Defining a Circle
 The second method of defining a circle
makes use of trigonometric functions (see
Fig. 3-6):
 x = r cos ɵ y = r sin ɵ
 where ɵ = current angle
 r = circle radius
 x = x coordinate
 y = y coordinate
 By this method, ɵ is stepped from ɵ to Π/4,
and each value of x and y is calculated.
However, computation of the values of sin
ɵ and cos ɵ is even more time-consuming
than the calculations required by the first
method.
Generating a circle using
Polynomial Method
1. Set the initial variables: r = circle radius; (h, k) = coordinates of the circle
center; x = 0; i = step size;
2. Test to determine whether the entire circle has been scan-converted. If x > xend,
stop.
3. Compute the value of the y coordinate, where y = sqrt(r2 — x2).
4. Plot the eight points, found by symmetry with respect to the center (h, k), at the
current (x, y) coordinates:
Plot(x + h, y + k) Plot(-x + h, -y + k)
Plot(y + h, x + k) Plot(-y + h, -x + k)
Plot(-y + h, x + k) Plot(y + h, -x + k)
Plot(-x + h, y + k) Plot(x + h, -y + k)
5. Increment x: x = x + i.
6. Go to step 2.
Scan Convert a Circle using
Trigonometric Method
1. Set the initial variables: r = circle radius; (h, k) = coordinates of the circle center; i = step
size;
ɵend = Π/4 (radians = 45°); ɵ = 0.
2. Test to determine whether the entire circle has been scan-converted. If ɵ > ɵ end , stop.
3. Compute the value of the x and y coordinates:
x = r cos(ɵ) y = r sin(ɵ)
4. Plot the eight points, found by symmetry with respect to the center (h, k), at the current
(x, y) coordinates:
Plot(x + h, y + k) Plot(-x + h, -y + k)
Plot(y + h,x + k) Plot(-y + h, -x + k)
Plot(-y + h, x + k) Plot(y + h,-x + k)
Plot(-x + h, y + k) Plot(x + h, -y + k)
5. Increment : ɵ = ɵ + i.
6. Go to step 2.
Bresenham's Circle Algorithm
 Scan-converting a circle using
Bresenham's algorithm works as follows.
 The best approximation of the true circle
will be described by those pixels in the
raster that fall the least distance from
the true circle. Examine Fig. 3-8. Notice
that, if points are generated from 90°
and 45°,each new point closest to the
true circle can be found by taking either
of two actions:
(1) move in the x direction one unit or
(2) move in the x direction one unit and
move in the negative y direction one unit.
Therefore, a method of selecting between
these two choices is all that is necessary to
find the points closest to the true circle.
Bresenham's Circle Algorithm
 Assume that (xi,yi) are the coordinates of the last scan-
converted pixel upon entering step i.
 Let the distance from the origin to pixel T squared
minus the distance to the true circle squared = D(T).
Then let the distance from the origin to pixel S squared
minus the distance to the true circle squared = D(S). As
the coordinates of T are (xi + 1,yi) and those of S are (xi
+ 1,yi-1), the following expressions can be developed:

 This function D provides a relative measurement of the

distance from the center of a pixel to the true circle.
Since D(T) will always be positive (T is outside the true
circle) and D(S) will always be negative (S is inside the
true circle), a decision variable di may be defined as
follows:

 When di < 0, we have |D(T)| < |D(S)| and pixel T is

chosen. When di > 0, we have |D(T)| > |D(S)| and pixel
S is selected.
Bresenham's Circle Algorithm
1. Set the initial values of the variables: (h, k) = coordinates of circle center; x =
0; y = circle radius r and d = 3 - 2r.
2. Test to determine whether the entire circle has been scan-converted. If x > y,
stop.
3. Plot the eight points, found by symmetry with respect to the center (h, k), at
the current (x, y) coordinates:
Plot(x + h, y + k) Plot(-x + h, -y + k)
Plot(y + h, x + k) Plot(-y + h, -x + k)
Plot(-y + h, x + k) Plot(y + h,-x + k)
Plot(-x + h, y + k) Plot(x + h, -y + k)
4. Compute the location of the next pixel.
If d < 0, then d = d + 4x + 6 and x = x + 1.
If d > 0, then d = d + 4(x - y) + 10, x = x + 1, and y = y - 1.
5. Go to step 2.
 Defining an Ellipse using Polynomial Method
 The ellipse, like the circle, shows symmetry. In the case of an
ellipse, however, symmetry is four- rather than eight-way.
 There are two methods of mathematically defining a ellipse.
 The polynomial method of defining an ellipse (Fig. 3-9) is given
by the expression

 where (h, k) = ellipse center

 a = length of major axis
 b = length of minor axis
When the polynomial method is used to define an ellipse, the
value of x is incremented from h to a. For each step of x, each
value of y is found by evaluating the expression

 This method is very inefficient, however, because the squares

of a and (x — h) must be found; then floating- point division of
(x — h) by a2 and floating-point multiplication of the square
root of [1 — (x — h) /a2] by b must be performed
Scan Converting an Ellipse using
Polynomial Method
1. Set the initial variables: a = length of major axis; b = length of minor
axis; (h, k) = coordinates of ellipse center; x = 0; i = step size; xend = a.
2. Test to determine whether the entire ellipse has been scan-converted. If
x > xend, stop.
3. Compute the value of the y coordinate:
4. Plot the four points, found by symmetry, at the current (x, y)
coordinates:
Plot(x + h, y + k) Plot(-x + h, -y + k)
Plot(-x + h, y + k) Plot(x + h, -y + k)
5. Increment x: x = x + i.
6. Go to step 2.
Defining Ellipse using
Trigonometric Method
A second method of defining an ellipse makes use of trigonometric
relationships. The following equations define an ellipse
trigonometrically:
x = a cos(ɵ) + h and y = b sin(ɵ) + k
 where (x, y) = the current coordinates
 a = length of major axis
 b = length of minor axis
 ɵ = current angle
 (h,k) = ellipse center
For generation of an ellipse using the trigonometric method, the
value of ɵ is varied from 0 to n/2
radians (rad). The remaining points are found by symmetry.
While this method is also inefficient and thus generally too slow for
interactive applications, a lookup table containing the values for
sin(ɵ) and cos(ɵ) with ɵ ranging from 0 to n/2 rad can be used.
Scan Converting an Ellipse using
Trigonometric Method
1. Set the initial variables: a = length of major axis; b = length of minor axis;
(h, k) = coordinates of ellipse center; i = counter step size; ɵend = n/2; ɵ = 0.
2. Test to determine whether the entire ellipse has been scan-converted. If ɵ
> ɵend, stop.
3. Compute the values of the x and y coordinates:
x = a cos(ɵ) y = b sin(ɵ)
4. Plot the four points, found by symmetry, at the current (x, y) coordinates:
Plot(x + h, y + k) Plot(-x + h, -y + k)
Plot(-x + h, y + k) Plot(x + h, -y + k)
5. Increment 8: 8 = 8 + i.
6. Go to step 2