2160703

Computer Graphics

Unit-2
Graphics Primitives

Prof. Vijay M. Shekhat

9558045778
vijay.shekhat@darshan.ac.in
 Outline
 Points
 Line drawing algorithms.
 Circle drawing algorithm.
 Ellipse drawing algorithm.
 Scan-Line polygon filling algorithm.
 Inside-Outside test.
 Boundary fill algorithm.
 Flood fill algorithm.
 Character generation.
 Line attributes.
 Color and grayscale levels
 Area fill attributes.
 Character attributes.
Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 2 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Point
 Point plotting is done by converting a single coordinate position
furnished by an application program into appropriate operations
for the output device in use. 7
 Example: Plot point 6
5
 Line 4
 Line 3
 Point 2
1
 To draw the point on the screen we use0 function
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
 To draw the pixel in C language we use function

 Similarly for retrieving color of pixel we have function

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 3 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Line
 Line drawing is done by calculating intermediate positions along
the line path between two specified endpoint positions.
 The output device is then directed to fill in those positions
between the end points with some color.
4.5
 For some device such
4.5
44 as a pen plotter or random scan display, a
3.5
3.5
straight line can be 33drawn smoothly from one end point to other.
2.5
2.5
 Digital devices display
22
1.5 a straight line segment by plotting discrete
1.5
11
points between the two endpoints.
0.5
0.5
000.5
 Discrete coordinate positions along the line path are calculated
11 1.5 22 2.5 33 3.5 44 4.5

from the equation of the line.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 4 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 Screen locations are referenced with integer values.
 So plotted positions may only approximate actual line positions
between two specified endpoints. For example line position of
(12.36, 23.87) would be converted to pixel position (12, 24).
 This rounding of coordinate values to integers causes lines to be
displayed with a stair step appearance (“the Jaggies”).

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 5 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Line Drawing Algorithms
 The Cartesian slop-intercept equation for a straight line is

• with ‘’ representing slop and ‘’ as the intercept.

 It is possible to draw line using this equation but for efficiency
purpose we use different line drawing algorithm.
• DDA Algorithm
• Bresenham’s Line Algorithm
 We can also use this algorithm in parallel if we have more number
of processors.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 6 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Introduction to DDA Algorithm
 Full form of DDA is Digital Differential Analyzer
 DDA is scan conversion line drawing algorithm based on
calculating either or using line equation.
 We sample the line at unit intervals in one coordinate and find
corresponding integer values nearest the line path for the other
coordinate.
 Selecting unit interval in either or direction based on way we
process line.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 7 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Unit Step Direction in DDA Algorithm
 Processing from left to right.
 Slope is “+ve”, & Magnitude is Less than 1
Δ 𝑋 =1
 Slope is “-ve”, & Magnitude is Less than 1
 Slope is “+ve”, & Magnitude is greater than 1 Δ 𝑌 =1
 Slope is “-ve”, & Magnitude is greater than 1 Δ 𝑌 =− 1

 Processing from right to left.

 Slope is “+ve”, & Magnitude is Less than 1
 Slope is “-ve”, & Magnitude is Less than 1 Δ 𝑋 =− 1
 Slope is “+ve”, & Magnitude is greater than 1 Δ 𝑌 =− 1
 Slope is “-ve”, & Magnitude is greater than 1 Δ 𝑌 =1

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 8 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Derivation of DDA Algorithm
 We sample at unit interval and calculate each successive value as
follow:

 [For first intermediate point]

 [For intermediate point]
 [For intermediate point]
 Subtract from

 Using this equation computation becomes faster than normal line

equation.
 As is any real value calculated value must be rounded to nearest integer.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 9 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 We sample at unit interval and calculate each successive value as
follow:

 [For first intermediate point]

 [For intermediate point]
 [For intermediate point]
Subtract from


Similarly
 for ∆x = -1: we obtain
 for ∆y = -1: we obtain
Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 10 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
Procedure for DDA line algorithm.
Void lineDDA (int xa, int ya, int xb, int yb)
{
int dx = xb – xa, dy = yb – ya, steps, k;
float xincrement, yincrement, x = xa, y = ya;
if (abs(dx)>abs(dy))
{
Steps = abs (dx);
}
else
{
Steps = abs (dy);
}
xincrement = dx/(float) steps;
yincrement = dy/(float) steps;

setpixel (ROUND (x), ROUND (y));

for(k=0;k<steps;k++)
{
x += xincrement;
y += yincrement;
setpixel (ROUND (x), ROUND (y));
}
}
 Example DDA Algorithm
 Example: Draw line with coordinates , .
4
 is “+ve” and less than 1 so . 3
2
 , 1
0
[Plot the initial point as given]
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
 ,
[Plot the first intermediate point by rounding it to ]
 ,
[Plot the second intermediate point by rounding it to ]
 ,
[Plot the third intermediate point by rounding it to ]
 ,
[Plot End point given]
Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 12 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Introduction to Bresenham’s Line Algorithm
 An accurate and efficient raster line-generating algorithm,
developed by Bresenham.
 It scan converts line using only incremental integer calculations.
 That can be modified to display circles and other curves.
 Based on slop we take unit step in one direction and decide pixel
of other direction from two candidate pixel.
 If we sample at unit interval and vice versa.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 13 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Line Path & Candidate pixel
 Example |ΔX| > |ΔY|, and ΔY is “+ve”. 4
3
 Initial point (Xk, Yk) 2
 Line path 1
0
 Candidate pixels {(Xk+1, Yk), (Xk+1, Yk+1)}
0 1 2 3 4
 Now we need to decide which candidate pixel is more closer to
actual line.
 For that we use decision parameter (Pk) equation.
 Decision parameter can be derived by calculating distance of
actual line from two candidate pixel.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 14 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Derivation Bresenham’s Line
Algorithm
 [Line Equation]
4
3
 [Actual Y value at Xk position] 2
1
 [Actual Y value at Xk +1position] 0

Distance between actual line position and lower 0 1 2 3 4

candidate pixel


Distance between actual line position and upper

candidate pixel

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 15 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
Calculate

 [Put ]
Decision parameter

 [Replacing single constant C for simplicity]

Similarly
Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 16 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Contd.
Subtract from


[where ]

[where depending on selection of previous pixel]

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 17 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Initial Decision parameter
 The first decision parameter is calculated using equation of .

 [Put ]

[Substitute ]

[Substitute ]


[Initial decision parameter with all terms are constant]

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 18 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Bresenham’s Line Algorithm
1. Input the two line endpoints and store the left endpoint in .
2. Load into the frame buffer; that is, plot the first point.
3. Calculate constants , , , and , and obtain the starting value for the
decision parameter as

4. At each along the line, starting at , perform the following test:

If , the next point to plot is and

Otherwise, the next point to plot is and

5. Repeat step-4 times.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 19 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Discryption of Bresenham’s Line Algorithm
 Bresenham’s algorithm is generalized to lines with arbitrary slope.
 For lines with positive slope greater than 1 we interchange the roles of the
and directions.
 Also we can revise algorithm to draw line from right endpoint to left
endpoint, both and decrease as we step from right to left.
 When we can choose either lower or upper pixel but same for whole line.
 For the negative slope the procedure are similar except that now one
coordinate decreases as the other increases.
 The special case handle separately by loading directly into the frame
buffer without processing.
 Horizontal line ,
 Vertical line
 Diagonal line with

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 20 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Example Bresenham’s Line
Algorithm
 Example: Draw line with coordinates , .
 Plot left end point .
 Calculate: 4
3
• ,
2
• ,
1
• , 0
• ,
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

 Now so we select upper pixel .

 Now so we select lower pixel .

 Now so we select upper pixel .

 Now so we select lower pixel .

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 21 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Parallel Execution of Line
Algorithms
 The line-generating algorithms we have discussed so far
determine pixel positions sequentially.
 With multiple processors we can calculate pixel position along a
line path simultaneously.
 One way to use multiple processors is partitioning existing
sequential algorithm into small parts and compute separately.
 Alternatively we can setup the processing so that pixel positions
can be calculated efficiently in parallel.
 Balance the load among the available processors is also important
in parallel processing.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 22 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Parallel Bresenham Line Algorithms
 For number of processors we can set up parallel Bresenham line
algorithm by subdividing the line path into partitions and
simultaneously generating line segment in each of the
subintervals.
 For a line with slope and left endpoint coordinate position , we
partition the line along the positive direction.
 The distance between beginning positions of adjacent partitions
can be calculated as:

 Where is the width of the line and value for partition with is
computed using integer division.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 23 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 Numbering the partitions and the processors, as 0, 1, 2, up to , we
calculate the starting coordinate for the partition as:

 The change in the direction over each partition is calculated from

the line slope and partition width :

 At the partition, the starting y coordinate is then

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 24 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 IDP for Parallel Bresenham Line
Algorithms
 The initial decision parameter(IDP) for Bresenham's algorithm at
the start of the subinterval is obtained as follow:

 Each processor then calculates pixel positions over its assigned

subinterval.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 25 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Other Ways for Parallel Execution of Line
Algorithms
 For line with slope greater than 1 we partitioning the line in the
direction and calculating beginning values for the positions.
 For negative slopes, we increment coordinate values in one
direction and decrement in the other.
 Another way to set up parallel algorithms on raster system is to
assign each processor to a particular group of screen pixels.
 With sufficient number of processor we can assign each processor
to one pixel within some screen region.
 This can be done by assigning one processor to each of the pixels
within the limit of the bounding rectangle.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 26 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 Perpendicular distance d from line to a particular pixel is
calculated by:

Where

With

 , , and are constant we need to compute only once.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 27 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 For the line each processors need to perform two multiplications
and two additions to compute the pixel distance .
 A pixel is plotted if is less than a specified line thickness
parameter.
 Instead of partitioning the screen into single pixels, we can assign
to each processor either a scan line or a column.
 Each processor calculates line intersection with horizontal row or
vertical column of pixels assigned to that processor.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 28 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 If vertical column is assign to processor then is fix and it will
calculate .
 Similarly if horizontal row is assign to processor then is fix and
will be calculated.
 Such direct methods are slow in sequential machine but we can
perform very efficiently using multiple processors.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 29 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Circle
 A circle is defined as the set of points that are all at a given
distance from a center position say .

Center

r
Radius

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 30 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Properties of Circle- Cartesion Coordinate
 Cartesian coordinates equation :

 We could use this equation to calculate circular boundary points.

 We increment 1 in direction in every steps from to and calculate
corresponding values at each position as:

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 31 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 But this is not best method as it requires more number of
calculations which take more time to execute.
 And also spacing between the plotted pixel positions is not
uniform.

 We can adjust spacing by stepping through y values and

calculating x values whenever the absolute value of the slop of the
circle is greater than 1.
 But it will increases computation time.
Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 32 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Properties of Circle- Polar Coordinate
 Another way to eliminate the non-uniform spacing is to draw
circle using polar coordinates ‘r’ and ‘’.
 Calculating circle boundary using polar equation is given by pair of
equations which is as follows.

 When display is produce using these equations using fixed angular

step size circle is plotted with uniform spacing.
 The step size ‘’ is chosen according to application and display
device.
 For a more continuous boundary on a raster display we can set the
step size at .
Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 33 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Properties of Circle- Symmetry
 Computation can be reduced by considering symmetry city
property of circles.
 The shape of circle is similar in each octant.

(-3, 4) (3, 4)
(-Y, X) (Y, X)
(-4, 3) (4, 3)
(-X, Y) (X, Y)
45 𝑂
(-4, -3) (4, -3)
(-X, -Y) (X, -Y)

(-Y, -X) (Y, -X)

(-3, -4) (3, -4)

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 34 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Circle Algorithm
 Taking advantage of this symmetry property of circle we can
generate all pixel position on boundary of circle by calculating only
one sector from to .
 Determining pixel position along circumference of circle using any
of two equations shown above still required large computation.
 More efficient circle algorithm are based on incremental
calculation of decision parameters, as in the Bresenham line
algorithm.
 Bresenham’s line algorithm can be adapted to circle generation by
setting decision parameter for finding closest pixel to the
circumference at each sampling step.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 35 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 A method for direct distance comparison to test the midpoint
between two pixels to determine if this midpoint is inside or
outside the circle boundary.
 This method is easily applied to other conics also.
 Midpoint approach generates same pixel position as generated by
bresenham’s circle algorithm.
 The error involve in locating pixel positions along any conic section
using midpoint test is limited to one-half the pixel separation.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 36 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Introduction to Midpoint Circle Algorithm
 In this we sample at unit interval and determine the closest pixel
position to the specified circle path at each step.
 Given radius and center
 We first setup our algorithm to calculate circular path coordinates
for center .
 And then we will transfer calculated pixel position to center by
adding to and to .
 Along the circle section from to in the first quadrant, the slope of
the curve varies from to .
 So we can step unit step in positive direction over this octant and
use a decision parameter to determine which of the two possible
position is closer to the circular path.
Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 37 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Decision Parameter Midpoint Circle Algorithm
 Position in the other seven octants are then obtain by symmetry.
 For the decision parameter we use the circle function which is:

 Above equation we calculate for the mid positions between pixels

near the circular path at each sampling step.
 And we setup incremental calculation for this function as we did in
the line algorithm.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 38 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Midpoint between Candidate
pixel
 Figure shows the midpoint between the two candidate pixels at
sampling position .
𝒙 𝟐+ 𝒚 𝟐−𝒓 𝟐=𝟎
yk Midpoint

yk+1 Candidate
Pixel

xk xk+1 xk+2

 Assuming we have just plotted the pixel at

 Next we determine whether the pixel at position or the one at
position is closer to circle boundary.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 39 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Derivation Midpoint Circle
Algorithm
 So for finding which pixel is more closer using decision parameter
evaluated at the midpoint between two candidate pixels as below:

 If , midpoint is inside the circle and the pixel on the scan line is
closer to circle boundary.
 Otherwise midpoint is outside or on the boundary and we select
the scan line .

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 40 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 Successive decision parameters are obtain using incremental
calculations as follows:

 Now we can obtain recursive calculation using equation of and as

follow

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 41 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.

 Now we can put

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 42 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 In above equation is either or depending on the sign of the .
 If we select .

 If we select .

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 43 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.

 Now put .

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 44 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 IDP Midpoint Circle Algorithm
 The initial decision parameter(IDP) is obtained by evaluating the
circle function at the start position as follows.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 45 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

Algorithm for Midpoint Circle Generation
1. Input radius r and circle center , and obtain the first point on the circumference
of a circle centered on the origin as

2. calculate the initial value of the decision parameter as

3. At each position, starting at , perform the following test:

If, the next point along the circle centered on is

Otherwise, the next point along the circle is

Where, &.
4. Determine symmetry points in the other seven octants.
5. Move each calculated pixel position onto the circular path centered on and
plot the coordinate values:
,
6. Repeat steps 3 through 5 until.
 Example Midpoint Circle
Algorithm
 Example: Draw circle with radius , and center of circle is (Only one
octant to )
 First we find pixel position for octant to for center

0 -9 (1, 10)

 Now we select (1, 10) 1 -6 (2, 10)

2 -1 (3, 10)
3 6 (4, 9)
4 -3 (5, 9)
 Now we select (2, 10) 5 8 (6, 8)
6 5 (7, 7)

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 47 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
0 -9 (1, 10)
1 -6 (2, 10)
 Now we select (3, 10)
2 -1 (3, 10)
3 6 (4, 9)
4 -3 (5, 9)

 Now we select (4, 9) 5 8 (6, 8)

6 5 (7, 7)

 Now we select (5, 9)

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 48 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
0 -9 (1, 10)
1 -6 (2, 10)
 Now we select (6, 8)
2 -1 (3, 10)
3 6 (4, 9)
4 -3 (5, 9)

 Now we select (7, 7) 5 8 (6, 8)

6 5 (7, 7)
 Now Loop exit as , as
 in our case

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 49 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 Than we calculate pixel position for given center using equations:

Center (0, 0) Center (1, 1)

(1, 10) (2, 11)
(2, 10) (3, 11)
(3, 10) (4, 11)
(4, 9) (5, 10)
(5, 9) (6, 10)
(6, 8) (7, 9)
(7, 7) (8, 8)

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 50 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 Plot the pixel.
12
 First plot initial point. 11
(1, 11) 10
Center (1, 1) 9
8
(2, 11) 7
(3, 11) 6
(4, 11) 5
(5, 10) 4
(6, 10) 3
(7, 9) 2
Center
1
(8, 8) (1, 1)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 51 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Ellipse
 AN ellipse is defined as the set of points such that the sum of the
distances from two fixed positions (foci) is same for all points.

𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑑1
𝑑2
𝑓1 𝑓2

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 52 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 If we labeled distance from two foci to any point on ellipse
boundary as and then the general equation of an ellipse can be
written as:

 Expressing distance in terms of focal coordinates and we have

[Using Distance formula]

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 53 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Properties of Ellipse-Specifying Equations
 An interactive method for specifying an ellipse in an arbitrary
orientation is to input
 two foci and
 a point on the ellipse boundary.
 With this three coordinates we can evaluate constant in equation:

 We can also write this equation in the form

 Where the coefficients , and are evaluated in terms of the focal

coordinates and the dimensions of the major and minor axes of
the ellipse.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 54 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 Then coefficient in can be evaluated and used to generate pixels
along the elliptical path.
 We can say ellipse is in standard position if their major and minor
axes are parallel to x-axis and y-axis.
 Ellipse equation are greatly simplified if we align major and minor
axis with coordinate axes i.e. x-axis and y-axis.

X-axis

Y-axis

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 55 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 Equation of ellipse can be written in terms of the ellipse center
coordinates and parameters and as.

 Using the polar coordinates r and θ, we can also describe the

ellipse in standard position with the parametric equations:

𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑥
(𝑥 𝑐 , 𝑦 𝑐 )
Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 56 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Properties of Ellipse-
Symmetry
 Symmetry property further reduced computations.
 An ellipse in standard position is symmetric between quadrant.

(− 2 , 4) (2 , 4 )
(− 𝑥 , 𝑦 ) (𝑥 , 𝑦 )
𝑟𝑦
𝑟𝑥
(𝑥 𝑐 , 𝑦 𝑐 )
(− 𝑥 ,− 𝑦 ) (𝑥 , − 𝑦 )
(− 2 ,− 4) (2 , − 4)

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 57 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Introduction to Midpoint Ellipse Algorithm
 Given parameters .
 We determine points for an ellipse in standard position centered
on the origin.
 Then we shift the points so the ellipse is centered at .
 If we want to display the ellipse in nonstandard position then we
rotate the ellipse about its center to align with required direction.
 For the present we consider only the standard position.
 We draw ellipse in first quadrant and than use symmetry property
for other three quadrant.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 58 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Regions in Midpoint Ellipse Algorithm
 In this method we divide first quadrant into two parts according to
the slope of an ellipse
 Boundary divides region at
Region 1
• slope = -1. 𝑦
 We take unit step in X direction 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒=−1
• If magnitude of ellipse slope < 1 (Region 1). 𝑟𝑦
Region 2
 We take unit step in Y direction
• If magnitude of ellipse slope > 1 (Region 2).
𝑟𝑥 𝑥

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 59 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Ways of Processing Midpoint Ellipse Algorithm
 We can start from and step clockwise along the elliptical path in
the first quadrant
 Alternatively, we could start at and select points in a
counterclockwise order.
 With parallel processors, we could calculate pixel positions in the
two regions simultaneously.
 Here we consider sequential implementation of midpoint
algorithm.
 We take the start position at and steps along the elliptical path in
clockwise order through the first quadrant.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 60 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Decision Parameter Midpoint Ellipse Algorithm
 We define ellipse function for center of ellipse at (0, 0) as follows.

 Which has the following properties:

 Thus the ellipse function serves as the decision parameter in the

midpoint ellipse algorithm.
 At each sampling position we select the next pixel from two
candidate pixel.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 61 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Processing Steps of Midpoint Ellipse Algorithm
 Starting at we take unit step in direction until we reach the
boundary between region-1 and region-2.
 Then we switch to unit steps in direction in remaining portion on
ellipse in first quadrant.
Region 1
 At each step we need to test the value 𝑦
of the slope of the curve for deciding 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒=−1
the end point of the region-1. 𝑟𝑦
Region 2
𝑟𝑥 𝑥

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 62 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Decide Boundary between
Region 1 and 2
 The ellipse slope is calculated using following equation.

 At boundary between region 1 and 2 slope= -1 and equation

become.

 Therefore we move out of region 1 whenever following equation

is false:

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 63 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Midpoint between Candidate pixel in Region 1
 Figure shows the midpoint between the two candidate pixels at
sampling position in the first region.
ry2x2+rx2y2-rx2ry2=0

yk Midpoint
yk-1 Candidate

xk xk + xk+2
Pixel

 Assume we are at position and we determine the next position

along the ellipse path, by evaluating decision parameter at
midpoint between two candidate pixels.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 64 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Derivation for Region 1

 If, the midpoint is inside the ellipse and the pixel on scan line is
closer to ellipse boundary
 Otherwise the midpoint is outside or on the ellipse boundary and
we select the pixel .

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 65 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 At the next sampling position decision parameter for region 1 is
evaluated as.

 Now subtract from

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 66 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.

 Now making as subject.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 67 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 is either or , depends on the sign of

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 68 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 IDP for Region 1
 Now we calculate the initial decision parameter by putting as
follow.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 69 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Midpoint between Candidate pixel in Region 2
 Now we similarly calculate over region-2.
 Unit stepping in negative direction and the midpoint is now taken

ry2x2+rx2y2-rx2ry2=0
between horizontal pixels at each step.

yk Midpoint
yk-1
Candidate
Pixel
xk xk+1 xk+2
 For this region, the decision parameter is evaluated as follows.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 70 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Derivation for Region 2

 If the midpoint is outside the ellipse boundary, and we select the

pixel at .
 If the midpoint is inside or on the ellipse boundary and we select .

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 71 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 At the next sampling position decision parameter for region 2 is
evaluated as.

 Now subtract from

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 72 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 73 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 Now making as subject.

 Here is either or , depends on the sign of .

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 74 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 IDP for Region 2
 In region-2 initial position is selected which is last position of
region one and the initial decision parameter is calculated as
follows.

 For simplify calculation of we could also select pixel position in

counterclockwise order starting at .

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 75 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

Algorithm for Midpoint Ellipse Generation
1. Input and ellipse center , and obtain the first point on an ellipse centered on the
origin as

2. Calculate the initial value of the decision parameter in region 1 as

3. At each position in region 1, starting at , perform the following test:

If, than the next point along the ellipse is and

Otherwise, the next point along the ellipse is and

With
,
And continue until
Contd.
4. Calculate the initial value of the decision parameter in region 2 using the last
point calculated in region 1 as

5. At each position in region-2, starting at , perform the following test:

If, the next point along the ellipse is and

Otherwise, the next point along the ellipse is and

Using the same incremental calculations for and as in region 1.

6. Determine symmetry points in the other three quadrants.

7. Move each calculated pixel position onto the elliptical path centered on and
plot the coordinate values:
,

8. Repeat the steps for region 2 until.

 Example Midpoint Ellipse
Algorithm
 Example: Calculate intermediate pixel position (For first quadrant)
for ellipse with and ellipse center is at origin
 Initial point

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 78 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
K p1k (xk+1, yk+1)
0 -332 (1, 6)
1 -224 (2, 6)
2 -44 (3, 6)
3 208 (4, 5)
4 -108 (5, 5)
5 288 (6, 4)
6 244 (7, 3)

Calculation stop
when

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 79 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
K p1k (xk+1, yk+1)
0 -332 (1, 6)
1 -224 (2, 6)
2 -44 (3, 6)
3 208 (4, 5)
4 -108 (5, 5)
5 288 (6, 4)
6 244 (7, 3)

Calculation stop
when

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 80 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
K p1k (xk+1, yk+1)
0 -332 (1, 6)
1 -224 (2, 6)
2 -44 (3, 6)
3 208 (4, 5)
4 -108 (5, 5)
5 288 (6, 4)
6 244 (7, 3)

Calculation stop
when

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 81 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
K p1k (xk+1, yk+1)
0 -332 (1, 6)
1 -224 (2, 6)
2 -44 (3, 6)
3 208 (4, 5)
4 -108 (5, 5)
5 288 (6, 4)
6 244 (7, 3)

Calculation stop
when

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 82 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
K p1k (xk+1, yk+1)
0 -332 (1, 6)
1 -224 (2, 6)
2 -44 (3, 6)
3 208 (4, 5)
4 -108 (5, 5)
5 288 (6, 4)
6 244 (7, 3)

Calculation stop
when

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 83 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
K p1k (xk+1, yk+1)
0 -332 (1, 6)
1 -224 (2, 6)
2 -44 (3, 6)
3 208 (4, 5)
4 -108 (5, 5)
5 288 (6, 4)
6 244 (7, 3)

Calculation stop
when

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 84 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
K p2k (xk+1, yk+1)
0 -23 (8, 2)
1 361 (8, 1)
2 297 (8, 0)

Calculation stop
when

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 85 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
K p2k (xk+1, yk+1)
0 -23 (8, 2)
1 361 (8, 1)
2 297 (8, 0)

Calculation stop
when

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 86 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
K p2k (xk+1, yk+1)
0 -23 (8, 2)
1 361 (8, 1)
2 297 (8, 0)

Calculation stop
when

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 87 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 Plot the pixel.
12
 Plot initial point(0, 6) 11
Center (0, 0) Center (0, 0) 10
9
(1, 6) (8, 2) 8
(2, 6) (8, 1) 7
(3, 6) 6
(8, 0)
(4, 5) 5
(5, 5) 4
(6, 4) 3
(7, 3) 2
1
Center 0
(0, 0) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 88 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Filled-Area Primitives
 In practical we often use polygon which are filled with some
colour or pattern inside it.
 There are two basic approaches to area filling on raster systems.
• One way to fill an area is to determine the overlap intervals for scan line
that cross the area.
• Another method is to start from a given interior position and paint outward
from this point until we encounter boundary.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 89 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Scan-Line Polygon Fill
Algorithm
 For each scan-line crossing a polygon, the algorithm locates the
intersection points are of scan line with the polygon edges.
 This intersection points are stored from left to right.
 Frame buffer positions between each pair of intersection point are
set to specified fill color.

Scan line

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 90 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 Scan line intersects at vertex are required special handling.
 For vertex we must look at the other endpoints of the two line
segments which meet at this vertex.
• If these points lie on the same (up or down) side of the scan line, then that
point is counts as two intersection points.
• If they lie on opposite sides of the scan line, then the point is counted as
single intersection.

Scan line
Scan line

Scan line

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 91 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Edge Intersection Calculation with Scan-Line
 Coherence methods often involve incremental calculations applied
along a single scan line or between successive scan lines.
 In determining edge intersections, we can set up incremental
coordinate calculations along any edge by exploiting the fact that
the slope of the edge is constant from one scan line to the next.
 For above figure we can write slope equation for polygon
boundary as follows.

 Since change in coordinates between the two scan lines is simply

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 92 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 So slope equation can be modified as follows

 Each successive intercept can thus be calculated by adding the

inverse of the slope and rounding to the nearest integer.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 93 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Edge Intersection Calculation with Scan-Line for parallel
execution
 For parallel execution of this algorithm we assign each scan line to
separate processor in that case instead of using previous values
for calculation we use initial values by using equation as.

 Now if we put in incremental calculation equation then we

obtain equation as.

 Using this equation we can perform integer evaluation of

intercept.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 94 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Simplified Method for Edge Intersection Calculation
with Scan-Line
1. Suppose
2. Initially, set counter to , and increment to (which is ).
3. When move to next scan line, increment counter by adding
4. When counter is equal to or greater than (which is ), increment
the (in other words, the for this scan line is one more than the
previous scan line), and decrement counter by (which is ).
∆ 𝑥=3 , ∆ 𝑦 =7

Counter=2
Counter=3
Counter=4
Counter=5
Counter=6
Counter=1
Counter=0

𝑦0
𝑥0
Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 95 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Use of Sorted Edge table in Scan-Line Polygon
Fill Algorithm
 To efficiently perform a polygon fill, we can first store the polygon
boundary in a sorted edge table.
 It contains all the information necessary to process the scan lines
efficiently.
 We use bucket sort to store the edge sorted on the smallest value
of each edge in the correct scan line positions.
 Only the non-horizontal edges are entered into the sorted edge
table.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 96 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
Scan Line
Number
𝑦𝐶 𝑦 𝐵 𝑥 𝐶1/ 𝑚𝐶𝐵
B .
.
.
𝑦𝐷 𝑦 𝐶 𝑥 𝐷 1/ 𝑚 𝐷𝐶
Scan Line .
C . 𝑦 𝐸 𝑥 𝐷 1/ 𝑚 𝐷𝐸
.
C E 𝑦𝐴
Scan Line 𝑦 𝐸 𝑥 𝐴1/ 𝑚 𝐴𝐸
Scan Line D .
.
A . 𝑦 𝐵 𝑥 𝐴1/ 𝑚 𝐴𝐵
1
0

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 97 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Inside-Outside Tests
 In area filling and other graphics operation often required to find
particular point is inside or outside the polygon.
 For finding which region is inside or which region is outside most
graphics package use either
1. Odd even rule OR
2. Nonzero winding number rule

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 98 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Odd Even/ Odd Parity/ Even Odd Rule
 By conceptually drawing a line from any position to a distant point
outside the coordinate extents of the object.
 Than counting the number of edges crossing by this line.
1. If Edge count is odd, than p is an interior point.
2. Otherwise p is exterior point.
 To obtain accurate edge count we must sure that line selected is
does not pass from any vertices. Boundary of Screen

1 2

𝑟 𝑝
1
𝑞
Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 99 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Nonzero Winding Number
Rule
 This method counts the number of times the polygon edges wind
around a particular point in the counterclockwise direction.
 This count is called the winding number.
 We apply this rule by initializing winding number with 0.
 Then draw a line for any point to distant point beyond the
coordinate extents of the object.
Boundary of Screen

Winding number=0

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 100 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 The line we choose must not pass through vertices.
 Then we move along that line we find number of intersecting
edges.
1. If edge cross our line from right to left We add 1 to winding number
2. Otherwise subtract 1 from winding number
 IF the final value of winding number is nonzero then the point is
interior otherwise point is exterior. Boundary of Screen

-1 -1
Winding number=+1-1=0
number=0
number=-1

𝑟 𝑝
+1
𝑞
Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 101 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Comparison between Odd Even Rule and
Nonzero Winding Rule
 For standard polygons and simple object both rule gives same
result but for more complicated shape both rule gives different
result.

Odd Even Rule Nonzero Winding Rule

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 102 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Scan-Line Fill of Curved
Boundary

Areas
Scan-line fill of region with curved boundary is more time
consuming as intersection calculation now involves nonlinear
boundaries.
 For simple curve such as circle or ellipse scan line fill process is
straight forward process.
 We calculate the two scan line intersection on opposite side of the
curve.
 This is same as generating pixel position along the curve boundary
using standard equation of curve.
 Then we fill the color between two boundary intersections.
 Symmetry property is used to reduce the calculation.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 103 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Introduction to Boundary / Edge Fill Algorithm
 In this method, edges of the polygons are drawn.
 Then starting with some seed (any point inside the polygon) we
examine the neighbouring pixels to check whether the boundary
pixel is reached.
 If boundary pixels are not reached, pixels are highlighted and the
process is continued until boundary pixels are reached.
 Selection of neighbour pixel is either 4-cormected or 8-connected.

4-Cormected Region 8-Cormected Region

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 104 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Contd.
 In some cases, an 8-connected algorithm is more accurate than
the 4-connected algorithm.
 Some times 4-connected algorithm produces the partial fill.

Seed

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 105 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Boundary / Edge Fill Algorithm
Procedure:
boundary-fill4(x, y, f-colour, b-colour)
{
if(getpixel (x,y) ! = b-colour && gepixel (x, y) ! = f-colour)
{
putpixel (x, y, f-colour)
boundary-fill4(x + 1, y, f-colour, b-colour);
boundary-fill4(x, y + 1, f-colour, b-colour);
boundary-fill4(x - 1, y, f-colour, b-colour);
boundary-fill4(x, y - l, f-colour, b-colour);
}
}

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 106 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Problem of Staking and Efficient
Method
 Same procedure can be modified according to 8 connected region
algorithm by including four additional statements to test diagonal
positions.
 This procedure requires considerable stacking of neighbouring
points more, efficient methods are generally employed.
 Efficient method fill horizontal pixel spans across scan lines, instead
of proceeding to 4 connected or 8 connected neighbouring points.
 Then we need only stack a beginning position for each horizontal
pixel span, instead of stacking all unprocessed neighbouring
positions around the current position.
 Starting from the initial interior point with this method, we first fill
in the contiguous span of pixels on this starting scan line.
Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 107 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Contd.
 Then we locate and stack starting positions for spans on the
adjacent scan lines.
 Spans are defined as the contiguous horizontal string of positions
bounded by pixels displayed in the area border colour.
 At each subsequent step, we unstack the next start position and
repeat the process.
 For e.g.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 108 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.

3
2
(a) (b)
1 2 1 3
1 1

5 6 5
6
(c) 4 5 (d) 4 5
1 4 1 4
1 1

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 109 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Introduction to Flood-Fill
Algorithm
 Sometimes it is required to fill in an area that is not defined within
a single colour boundary.
 In such cases we can fill areas by replacing a specified interior
colour instead of searching for a boundary colour.
 This approach is called a flood-fill algorithm. Like boundary fill
algorithm, here we start with some seed and examine the
neighbouring pixels.
 However, here pixels are checked for a specified interior colour
instead of boundary colour and they are replaced by new colour.
 Using either a 4-connected or 8-connected approach, we can step
through pixel positions until all interior point have been filled.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 110 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Flood-Fill Algorithm
Procedure :
flood-fill4(x, y, new-colour, old-colour)
{
if(getpixel (x,y) = = old-colour)
{
putpixel (x, y, new-colour)
flood-fill4 (x + 1, y, new-colour, old -colour);
flood-fill4 (x, y + 1, new -colour, old -colour);
flood-fill4 (x - 1, y, new -colour, old -colour);
flood-fill4 (x, y - l, new -colour, old-colour);
}
}
Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 111 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Character Generation
 We can display letters and numbers in variety of size and style.
 The overall design style for the set of character is called typeface.
 Today large numbers of typefaces are available for computer
application for example Helvetica, Arial etc.
 Originally, the term font referred to a set of cast metal character
forms in a particular size and format.
 Example: 10-point Courier Italic or 12- point Palatino Bold.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 112 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 Now, the terms font and typeface are often used interchangeably,
since printing is no longer done with cast metal forms.
 Methods of character generation are:
 Bitmap Font/ Bitmapped Font
 Outline Font
 Stroke Method
 Starbust Method

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 113 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Bitmap Font/ Bitmapped Font
 A simple method for representing the 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
character shapes in a particular typeface is to 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
use rectangular grid patterns. 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
 In frame buffer, the 1 bits designate which 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
pixel positions are to be displayed on the 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
monitor.
 Bitmap fonts are the simplest to define and display.
 Bitmap fonts require more space.
 It is possible to generate different size and other variation from
one set but this usually does not produce good result.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 114 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Outline Font
 In this method character is generated using

B
curve section and straight line as combine
assembly.
 To display the character we need to fill interior
region of the character.
 This method requires less storage since each
variation does not required a distinct font cache.
 We can produce boldface, italic, or different
sizes by manipulating the curve definitions for
the character outlines.
 But this will take more time to process the
outline fonts, because they must be scan
converted into the frame buffer.
Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 115 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Stroke Method
• It uses small line segments to generate
a character.
• The small series of line segments are
drawn like a stroke of a pen to form a
character.
• We can generate our own stroke method by calling line
drawing algorithm.
• Here it is necessary to decide which line segments are
needs for each character and then draw that line to
display character.
• It support scaling by changing length of line segment.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 116 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Starbust Method
 In this method a fix pattern of lines (24 line) segments are used to
generate characters. 03 04
13 14
02 23 05
17 18
01 06
21
12 22 07
20
24 19
11 08
16 15
10 09

 We highlight those lines which are necessary to draw a particular

character.
 Pattern for particular character is stored in the form of 24 bit code.
 In which each bit represents corresponding line having that number.
 We put bit value 1 for highlighted line and 0 for other line.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 117 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 Example letter V
03 04
13 14
02 23 05
17 18
01 06
21
12 22 07
20
24 19
11 08
16 15
10 09

 Code for letter V = 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

 This technique is not used now a days because:
• It requires more memory to store 24 bit code for single character.
• It requires conversion from code to character.
• It doesn’t provide curve shapes.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 118 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Line Attributes
 Basic attributes of a straight line segment are:
• Type
• Dimension
• color
• pen or brush option.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 119 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Line Type
 Possible selection for the line-type attribute includes solid lines, dashed
lines, and dotted lines etc.
1 Solid

2 Dashed

3 Dotted
4 Dotdash

 We modify a line –drawing algorithm to generate such lines by setting the

length and spacing of displayed solid sections along the line path.
 To set line type attributes in a PHIGS application program, a user invokes
the function: setLinetype(It)
 Where parameter lt is assigned a positive integer value of 1, 2, 3, 4… etc. to
generate lines that are, respectively solid, dashed, dotted, or dotdash etc.
Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 120 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Line Width
 Implementation of line-width options depends on the capabilities
of the output device.
 A heavy line on a video monitor could be displayed as adjacent
parallel lines, while a pen plotter might require pen changes.
 To set line width attributes in a PHIGS application program, a user
invokes the function: setLinewidthScalFactor (lw)
 Line-width parameter lw is assigned a positive number to indicate
the relative width of the line to be displayed.
 Values greater than 1 produce lines thicker than the standard line
width and values less than the 1 produce line thinner than the
standard line width.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 121 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 In raster graphics we generate thick line by plotting
• above and below pixel of line path when slope |m|<1. &
• left and right pixel of line path when slope |m|>1.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 122 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Line Width at Endpoints and
Join
 As we change width of the line we can also change line end and
join of two lines which are shown below

Butt caps Miter join

Projecting square caps Round join

Round caps Bevel join

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 123 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Line color
 The name itself suggests that it is defining color of line displayed
on the screen.

 By default system produce line with current color but we can

change this color by following function in PHIGS package as
follows: setPolylinecolorIndex (lc)
 In this lc is constant specifying particular color to be set.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 124 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Pen and Brush Options
• In some graphics packages line is
displayed with pen and brush
selections.
• Options in this category include
shape, size, and pattern.
• These shapes can be stored in a
pixel mask that identifies the
array of pixel positions that are to
be set along the line path.
• Also, lines can be displayed with
selected patterns by
superimposing the pattern values
onto the pen or brush mask.
Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 125 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Color and Grayscale Levels
 Various colors and intensity-level options can be made available to
a user, depending on the capabilities and design objectives of a
particular system.
 General purpose raster-scan systems, for example, usually provide
a wide range of colors, while random-scan monitors typically offer
only a few color choices, if any.
 In a color raster system, the number of color choices available
depends on the amount of storage provided per pixel in the frame
buffer

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 126 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 Also, color-information can be stored in the frame buffer in two
ways:
• We can store color codes directly in the frame buffer OR
• We can put the color codes in a separate table and use pixel values as an
index into this table
 With direct storage scheme we required large memory for frame
buffer when we display more color.
 While in case of table it is reduced and we call it color table or
color lookup table.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 127 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Color Lookup Table
 Color values of 24 bit is stored in lookup table and in frame buffer
we store only 8 bit index of required color.
 So that size of frame buffer is reduced and we can display more
color. Color
Lookup
Frame Buffer Table
0 To Red Gun
To Green Gun
To Blue Gun

00000000 00001000 00100001

196 196 2081

255

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 128 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Greyscale
 With monitors that have no color capability, color function can be
used in an application program to set the shades of grey
(greyscale) for display primitives.
 Numeric values between 0-to-1 can be used to specify greyscale
levels.
 This numeric values is converted in binary code for store in raster
system. Example: frame buffer with 2 bits per pixel.
Intensity Code Stored Intensity Values In The Displayed Greyscale
Frame Buffer Binary Code
0.0 0 00 Black
0.33 1 01 Dark grey
0.67 2 10 Light grey
1.0 3 11 White

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 129 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Area-Fill Attributes
 For filling any area we have choice between solid colors or pattern
to fill all these are include in area fill attributes. Which are:
• Fill Styles
• Pattern Fill
• Soft Fill

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 130 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Fill Styles
 Area are generally displayed with three basic style.
1. hollow with color border
2. filled with solid color
3. filled with some design
 In PHIGS package fill style is selected by following function:
setInteriorStyle (fs)
 Value of fs include hollow ,solid, pattern etc.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 131 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 Another values for fill style is hatch, which is patterns of line like
parallel line or crossed line.

Hollow Solid Pattern Diagonal Diagonal Cross-

Hatch Fill Hatch Fill

 For setting interior color in PHIGS package we use:

setInteriorColorIndex (fc)
 Where fc specify the fill color.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 132 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Pattern Fill
• We select the pattern with Pattern Table
setInteriorStyleIndex (pi) Index(pi) Pattern(cp)
1
• Where pattern index parameter pi
2
specifies position in pattern table
entry.
• For example:
– SetInteriorStyle( pattern ) ;
– setInteriorStyleIndex ( 2 ) ;
– fillArea (n, points);

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 133 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 We can also maintain separate table for hatch pattern.
 We can also generate our own table with required pattern.
 Other function used for setting other style as follows:
setpatternsize (dx, dy)
 setPaternReferencePoint (position)
 We can create our own pattern by setting and resetting group of
pixel and then map it into the color matrix.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 134 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Soft Fill
 Soft fill is filling layer of color on back ground color so that we can
obtain the combination of both color.
 It is used to recolor or repaint so that we can obtain layer of
multiple color and get new color combination.
 One use of this algorithm is soften the fill at boundary so that
blurred effect will reduce the aliasing effect.
 For example if we fill t amount of foreground color then pixel color
is obtain as:

 Where F is foreground color and B is background color

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 135 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 If we see this color in RGB component then:

 Then we can calculate t as follows:

 If we use more then two color say three at that time equation
becomes as follow:

 Where the sum of coefficient , , and is 1.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 136 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Character Attributes
 The appearance of displayed characters is controlled by attributes
such as:
• Font
• Size
• Color
• Orientation.
 Attributes can be set for entire string or may be individually.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 137 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Text Attributes
 In text we are having so many style and design like italic fonts,
bold fonts etc.
 For setting the font style in PHIGS package we have function:
setTextFont (tf)
 Where tf is used to specify text font.
 For setting color of character in PHIGS we have function:
setTextColorIndex (tc)
 Where text color parameter tc specifies an allowable color code.
 For setting the size of the text we use function:
setCharacterheight (ch)
 Where ch is used to specify character height.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 138 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 For scaling the character we use function:
setCharacterExpansionFacter (cw)
 Where character width parameter cw is set to a positive real
number that scale the character body width.
 Spacing between character is controlled by function:
 setCharacterSpacing (cs)
 Where character spacing parameter cs can be assigned any real
value.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 139 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 The orientation for a displayed character string is set according to
the direction of the character up vector:
setCharacterUpVector (upvect)
 Parameter upvect in this function is assigned two values that
specify the x and y vector components.
 Text is then displayed so that the orientation of characters from
baseline to cap line is in the direction of the up vector.
 For setting the path of the character we use function:
setTextPath (tp)
 Where the text path parameter tp can be assigned the value:
right, left, up, or down.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 140 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 For setting the alignment we use function:
setTextAlignment (h, v)
 Where parameter h and v control horizontal and vertical
alignment respectively.
 For specifying precision for text display is given with function:
setTextPrecision (tpr)
 Where text precision parameter tpr is assigned one of the values:
string, char, or stroke.
 The highest-quality text is produced when the parameter is set to
the value stroke.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 141 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Marker Attributes
 A marker symbol display single character in different color and in
different sizes.
 For marker attributes implementation by procedure that load the
chosen character into the raster at defined position with the
specified color and size.
 We select marker type using function: setMarkerType (mt)
 Where marker type parameter mt is set to an integer code.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 142 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 Typical codes for marker type are the integers 1 through 5,
specifying, respectively:
1. a dot (.)
2. a vertical cross (+)
3. an asterisk (*)
4. a circle (o)
5. a diagonal cross (x).
 Displayed marker types are centred on the marker coordinates.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 143 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 We set the marker size with function:
SetMarkerSizeScaleFactor (ms)
 Where parameter marker size ms assigned a positive number
according to need for scaling.
 For setting marker color we use function:
setPolymarkerColorIndex (mc)
 Where parameter mc specify the color of the marker symbol.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 144 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Aliasing
 Primitives generated in raster graphics by various algorithms have
stair step shape or jagged appearance.
 Jagged appearance is due to integer calculation by rounding actual
values.
 This distortion of actual information due to low frequency
sampling is called aliasing.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 145 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Antialiasing
 Minimise effect of aliasing by some way is known as antialiasing.
 In periodic shape distortion may be occurs due to under sampling.

 To avoid losing information from such periodic objects, we need to

set the sampling frequency to at least twice that of the highest
frequency occurring in the object.
 This is referred to as the Nyquist sampling frequency (or Nyquist
sampling rate):

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 146 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 In other words sampling interval should be no larger than one-half the
cycle. Which is called nyquist sampling interval.

 One way to solve this problem is to display image on higher resolution.

 But it has also limit that how much large frame buffer we can maintain
along with maintaining refresh rate 30 to 60 frame per second.
 And also on higher resolution aliasing will remains up to some extents.
 With raster systems that are capable of displaying more than two
intensity levels (color or grayscale), we can apply antialiasing methods
to modify pixel intensities.
 By appropriately varying the intensities of pixels along the boundaries of
primitives, we can smooth the edges to lessen the aliasing effect.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 147 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Antialiasing Methods
1. Supersampling Straight Line Segments
2. Pixel-Weighting Masks
3. Area Sampling Straight Line Segments
4. Filtering Techniques
5. Pixel Phasing
6. Compensating For Line Intensity Differences
7. Antialiasing Area Boundaries

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 148 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Supersampling Straight Line
Segments
 For the greyscale display of a straight-line segment, we can divide
each pixel into a number of sub pixels and determine the number
of sub pixel along the line path.
 Then we set intensity level of each pixel proportional to number of
sub pixel along the line path.
 E.g. in figure area of each pixel is
divided into nine sub pixel and then we
determine how many number of sub
pixel are along the line ( it can be 3 or 2
or 1 as we divide into 9 sub pixel).
 Based on number 3 or 2 or 1 we assign
intensity value to that pixel.
Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 149 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Contd.
 We can achieve four intensity levels by dividing pixel into 16 sub
pixels and five intensity levels by dividing into 25 sub pixels etc.
 Lower intensity gives blurred effect and hence performs
antialiasing.
 Other way is we considered pixel areas of finite size, but we
treated the line as a mathematical entity with zero width.
 Actually, displayed lines have a width approximately equal to that
of a pixel.
 If we take finite width of the line into account, we can perform
supersampling by setting each pixel intensity proportional to the
number of sub pixels inside the polygon representing the line
area.
Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 150 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Contd.
 A sub pixel can be considered to be
inside the line if its lower left corner is
inside the polygon boundaries.
 Advantage of this is that it having
number of intensity equals to number of
sub pixel.
 Another advantage of this is that it will distribute total intensity
over more pixels.
 E.g. in figure pixel below and left to (10, 20) is also assigned some
intensity levels so that aliasing will reduce.
 For color display we can modify levels of color by mixing
background color and line color.
Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 151 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Pixel-Weighting Masks
 Supersampling method are often implemented by giving more
weight to sub pixel near the center of pixel area.
 As we expect centre sub pixel to be more important in
determining the overall intensity of a pixel.
 For the 3 by 3 pixel subdivisions we have considered so far, a
weighting scheme as in fig. could be used.
 The center sub pixel here is weighted four times that of the corner
sub pixels and twice that of the remaining sub pixels.
 By averaging the weight of sub pixel which are
along the line and assign intensity proportional to
average weight will reduce aliasing effect.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 152 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Area Sampling Straight Line
Segments
 In this scheme we treat line as finite width rectangle, and the
section of the line area between two adjacent vertical or two
adjacent horizontal screen grid lines is then a trapezoids.
 Overlap areas for pixels are calculated by determining how much
of the trapezoid overlaps each pixel in that vertical column (or
horizontal row).
 E.g. pixel with screen grid coordinates
(10, 20) is about 90 percent covered by
the line area, so its intensity would be
set to 90 percent of the maximum
intensity.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 153 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 Similarly, the pixel at (10 21) would be set to an intensity of about
15-percent of maximum.
 With color displays, the areas of pixel overlap with different color
regions is calculated and the final pixel color is taken as the
average color of the various overlap areas.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 154 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Filtering Techniques
 It is more accurate method for antialiasing.
 Common example of filter is rectangular, conical and Gaussian
filters.
 Methods for applying the filter function are similar to applying a
weighting mask, but now we integrate over the pixel surface to
obtain the weighted average intensity.
 For reduce computation we often use table look up.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 155 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Pixel Phasing
 On raster system if we pass the electron beam from the closer sub
pixel so that overall pixel is shifted by factor ¼, ½, or ¾ to pixel
diameter.
 Where beam strike at that part of pixel get more intensity then
other parts of the pixel and gives antialiasing effect.
 Some systems also allow the size of individual pixels to be
adjusted as an additional means for distributing intensities.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 156 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Compensating For Line Intensity Differences
 Antialiasing a line to soften the aliasing effect also compensates
for another raster effect, illustrated fig.
 As both lines are display with same number of pixel and then also
length of diagonal line is greater than horizontal line by factor .
 So that diagonal line is display with less intensity then horizontal
line.
 For compensating this we display diagonal line with high intensity
and horizontal line with low intensity so that this effect is
minimize.
 In general we set intensity according to slope of
the line.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 157 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Antialiasing Area Boundaries
 Methods we discuss for antialiasing line can also be applied for
area boundary.
 If system capabilities permit the repositioning of pixels, area
boundaries can be smoothen by adjusting boundary pixel
positions.
 Other method is to adjust each pixel intensity at boundary
position according to percent of area inside the boundary.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 158 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

 Contd.
 In fig. pixel at (x, y) is assigned half the intensity as its ½ area is
inside the area boundary.
 Similar adjustments based on percent of area of pixel inside are
applied to other pixel.

Unit: 2 Graphics Primitives 159 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

Thank You