WHAT IS ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY ?

Anatomy refers to the study of the bodys structure Physiology refers to the study of the bodys function Histology is the study of the structure and form of cells and tissues

Aims & Objectives of learning A&P

This course is the foundation for all Complementary, Beauty & Sports Therapy It is essential for therapists to have a sound understanding of anatomy and physiology of the body as they will be working in direct contact with the body structures It is vital that they have a comprehensive knowledge of diseases and disorders of the human body so that they are aware of where and when not to treat a client Knowing the structures & functions of the body systems is to operate within certain limits, in order to carry out a safe massage The same knowledge is to gain a proper understanding of the physical and psychological benefits of massage

ANATOMICAL LANGUAGE

pg vi

When describing the body, it is always described in the anatomical position. In the anatomical position: a person stands erect, legs together and arms by their sides, with their head, eyes, toes and palms of the hands facing forward. How to describe the location of a structure using anatomic terms. Anatomic terms such as midline, anterior & posterior, medial & lateral, abduction & adduction, superficial, deep and so on apply to the body when it is in the anatomical position.

Key to Anatomy Language

Anatomy Language
Direction Description Example Anterior (or ventral) Towards the front of the body (in front of). The sternum lies anterior to the heart. Posterior (or dorsal) Towards the back of the body (behind). The heart lies posterior the sternum. Superior (or cranial) Above (on top of). The heart lies superior to the diaphragm. Inferior (or caudal) Below (underneath). The diaphragm lies inferior to the heart. Lateral Away from the mid line of the body (towards the side). The lungs lie lateral to the heart. Medial Towards the mid line of the body (towards the middle). The heart lies medial to the lungs. Deep Away from the body surface (towards the inner body). The heart is deep to the sternum. Superficial Towards the external surface of the body. The sternum is superficial to the heart. Proximal Nearer to the trunk of the body. The shoulder is proximal to the elbow. Distal Furthest from the trunk of the body. The elbow is distal to the shoulder.

ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

THE CELL
Outcomes
Understand and explain: Structures and functions of cells The term Histology Process of mitosis Main types of tissue How substances enter and leave the cell
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THE CELL
The body is made up of 100,000 billions cells. A cell is the smallest unit of matter that can live independently and reproduce itself. Cells exist in all shapes & sizes - elongated, square, star-shaped & oval. Cells have many different functions.

The cell

The Cell
What does a cell do? It lives! Breathing, digesting, excreting, reproducing, sensing, growing, moving, dying. Summary of functions
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THE HIERARCHY OF HUMAN BODY CONSTITUENTS

pg 11

A group of cells of same type & function join to form a tissue A group of tissues of related function join to form an organ (e.g. stomach, lung, heart) A group of organs of related function join to form a system ( e.g. digestive, respiratory, vascular) A group of systems join together to form an organism (e.g. human body)
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WHAT IS A CELL MADE OF?

pg 8

Protoplasm, a slightly opaque (not transparent), colorless jelly-like substance. It is 70% water plus
organic & inorganic salts carbohydrates lipids (fatty substances) nitrogenous substances (amino acids obtained from protein) compounds of all of the above substances
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STRUCTURE OF A CELL
Cytoplasm is the protoplasm inside the cell membrane but outside the nucleus. It contains several different structures and substances:
Mitochondria Endoplasmic reticulum Ribosomes Lysomes Vacuoles Golgi apparatus - Centrioles - Centrosomes

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MITOCHONDRIA
These sausage-shaped organelles are sometimes referred to as the power houses of the cell, since they supply the cell with energy

Upon chemical reactions, there are releases of energy & the formation of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the main energy transporter within the cell
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ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
There are 2 types 1) Smooth ER produces & transports fats known as steroids and lipids. The hormones oestrogen and testosterone are produced by the smooth ER 2) Rough ER is covered with tiny granules called ribosomes. The function of ribosomes is to make protein. The rough ER transports these proteins through the cytoplasm to the golgi apparatus A network of membranes that forms the circulatory system of a cell, allowing the transport of different substances such as fats (steroids & lipids) & proteins made by ribosomes throughout the cells
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RIBOSOMES
The protein factories of a cell. They produce enzymes & other protein compounds Protein is used for the growth and repair of a cell

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LYSOSOMES
These are the cells waste disposal units These organelles contain sacs of digestive enzymes which are released to destroy worn-out parts of a cell & bacteria.

They break down parts of food allowing them to be used for energy transfer within the cell

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VACUOLES
These are empty spaces within the cytoplasm. They contain waste materials or secretions formed by the cytoplasm
They are used for storage or digestion purposes in different kinds of cells

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GOLGI APPARATUS
Golgi apparatus combines polysaccharides (carbohydrates) with protein compounds and secretes these in order to send them to other parts of the cell for use as energy
It is a communication network from deep within the cell to its membranes

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CENTRIOLES
Paired, rod-like organelles that lie at right angles to each other.
They are made of fine tubules which play an important role in mitosis (cell reproduction)

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CENTROSOMES
Dense areas of cytoplasm containing the centrioles

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NUCLEUS
In the centre of the cell is the largest organelle, the nucleus. It controls every organelle within the cytoplasm, and the cells processes of growth, repair and reproduction. It is contained within the nuclear membrane and its special protoplasm is called nucleoplasm. It contains DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), which carries the cells genetic code and chromatin, the material needed to form chromosomes.

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NUCLEUS - chromosomes
Chromosomes are made up of connected strands of DNA molecules, known as genes Chromosomes carry inherited information which makes sure that when cells divide, the daughter cells are identical to the parent cells Each species is determined by the number of chromosomes in the nucleus. Human cells contain 46, i.e. 23 from each parent

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CHROMATIDS & CENTROMERE

CHROMATIDS
Two strands of chromatids held together by a centromere form a chromosome

CENTROMERE
The point where the two chromatids join in the chromosome

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Chromatid & Centromere

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NUCLEOLUS
A small body within the nucleus that programmes the formation of ribosomes which then move into the cytoplasm of the cell and produce protein

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CELL MEMBRANES
A fine membrane, made of protein threads & lipids, which has two functions
To keep the nucleus & the cytoplasm in the cell but to let other substances, like fats & proteins, out It filters between the fluid inside the cell & and the tissue fluid outside it
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SUBSTANCES go in & out of cells in

5 different ways: DIFFUSION OSMOSIS DISSOLUTION ACTIVE TRANSPORT FILTRATION
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DIFFUSION
The membrane has tiny holes, or pores, between its proteins and lipids through which small molecules, like oxygen & carbon dioxide, can pass

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OSMOSIS
The process of transferring water across the membrane by osmotic pressure when the concentration or pressure of a solution is greater on one side of the membrane, water passes through to that side until the concentration is equal on both sides When both sides of the membranes have solutions of the same pressure it is called isotonic pressure

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DISSOLUTION
(dissolving) Fatty substances are too big to diffuse through the membranes tiny pores They dissolve into the fatty or lipid part of the membrane

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ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Substances are too large to pass through the membrane or are not soluble in fat A carrier substance in the cell membrane takes from the outside to the inside Glucose & amino acids are both transferred by active transport (energy used)
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FILTRATION
The movement of water and soluble substance across a membrane caused by the difference in pressure either side of the membrane The force of a fluids weight pushes against a surface and the fluid is thus moved through the membrane. This is called hydrostatic pressure which is the process responsible for the formation of urine in the kidneys.

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CELL REPRODUCTION
Mitosis is the multiplication/division of cells i.e. the continuous process of making new cells for growth and repair, and in order for life to continue when the old cells die Mitosis is faster in children and slows in later life Nerve cells are not always replaced when they die

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Four main stages of MITOSIS

Interphase
Prophase

Anaphase

Telophase
Metaphase

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PROPHASE

pg12

The centrosome divides into two centrioles. These move away from each other though still joined by the spindle-like threads of the centrosome The chromatin in the cells nucleus coils up, shortens and thickens Forming into pairs of rods called chromosomes Each chromosome consists of two chromatids joined by a centromere The nucleus disappears
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Prophase

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METAPHASE
The nuclear membrane of the nucleus disappears The chromosomes arrange themselves at the centre of the cell, each attached to the spindle by its centromere By the end of the metaphase, each individual chromosome can be seen distinctly as two chromatids starting to pull apart

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ANAPHASE
The centromere stretches as the centrioles are drawn further apart Pairs of chromatids divide and identical halves of the pairs move to each end of the cell At the end of the anaphase, the cell membrane begins to constrict in the centre

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TELOPHASE
The spindle fibres disintegrate and the centrioles replicate A new nuclear membrane appears around each set of 46 chromosomes The cell membrane continues to constrict until two cells are formed. These two daughter cells will be identical copies of the original single parent cell. Eventually, the daughter cells will also divide and the whole process continues throughout life
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INTERPHASE
The cell is resting DNA is reproduced just before mitosis occurs or the 46 chromosomes in each new cell revert to chromatin filaments Nuclear protein is synthesized Cell increases in size
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Interphase

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MEIOSIS
This is cell reproduction which results in a gamete/sex cell. In the 1st stage of meiosis, the centromere do not split and so whole chromosomes move to opposite poles on a spindle. This results in daughter cells with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell 23 in the male sperm & 23 in the female ovum When a male sperm fuses with a female ovum, a zygote, single complete cell with 46 chromosomes is created The zygote will divide by mitosis, and the organism that results from the cell division is an embryo which develops into a foetus
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TISSUES
Cells make tissue. There are 4 types of tissue in our body
Epithelial Connective Nervous Muscular
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1 EPITHELIAL TISSUE
Simple epithelium
Function as a covering or lining for organs & vessels consists of a single layer of cells attached to a basement membrane 4 types of single epithelium

pg 13

Compound epithelium
Has many layers of cells and no basement membrane. It is formed from a combination of deep layers of columnar cells plus flatter cells towards the surface It protects delicate parts of the body 2 types of compound epithelium
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SIMPLE EPITHELIUM
Squamous/Pavement epithelial tissue
Single layer of flattened cells attached to a basement membrane forms a thin, often permeable lining for the heart (pg57) blood & lymph vessels & alveoli of the lungs; allows diffusion & filtration

Cuboidal cells
Single layer of cubeshaped cells attached to a basement membrane forms lining of kidney tubules as well as some glands, can secrete substances & absorb them

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Squamous

Cuboidal

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SIMPLE EPITHELIUM
Columnar cells
Single layer of tall, rectangular cells attached to a membrane; resilient forms lining in active parts of the body such as stomach, intestines & urethra, some cells secrete & some absorb mucus depending on where they are in the body Ciliated cells
Single layer of mostly columnar cells (sometimes combined with squamous or cuboidal cells) attached to a basement membrane. Tiny hair-like projections, or cilia, stick out from the cell membrane The cilia work in waves, all moving together in the same direction. They help to remove mucus, foreign matter & debris, keeping respiratory system passageways & linings clear
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Columnar

Ciliated

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COMPOUND EPITHELIUM
Stratified epithelium Keratinised (dry) compound
epithelium with dry surface cells; forms a dead layer Non-keratinised (wet) compound epithelium with wet surface cells e.g. inside mouth, lining of oesophagus, conjunctiva (mucous membrane) of the eyes. - Provides lubrication Transitional epithelium - Similar to stratified epithelium except that the surface cells are not flattened and thus can change shape when necessary; cube shaped surface cells and deeper pear-shaped - Found in organs that need waterproof & expandable lining e.g. bladder & ureters
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e.g. hair, skin, nails It is keratinised (i.e. the surface layer has dried out into keratin, a fibrous protein which creates a water proof layer). Skin is stratified, keratinised, squamous epithelium- The keratinisation prevents deeper layers from drying out & protects them

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2 NERVOUS TISSUE
Structure: - Arranged in bundles of fibres, composed of nerve cells & neuroglia. - The cells have long fibrous processes. On a nerve cell these processes are called dendrites & axons
pg76

Function: - Transmitting signals to & from the brain

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3 MUSCULAR TISSUE
There are 3 types of muscles tissue: pg 38 Skeletal - striated or voluntary muscles
to help support & move the body

Smooth non striated or involuntary muscles

to carry out involuntary functions e.g. peristalsis

All muscles are made of 75% water, 20% protein, 5% mineral salts, glycogen, glucose & fat

Cardiac striated and involuntary muscles, only exist in the heart

heart muscles to contract the heart to pump blood out of the heart
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Muscular tissues

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4 CONNECTIVE TISSUES
Connective tissues are the supporting tissues of the body They connect active tissues like bones & muscles They can be semi-solid, solid (bone) or liquid (blood)

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8 types of CONNECTIVE TISSUES

Aerolar
Adipose Lymphoid

White fibrous
Bone Blood

Yellow elastic

Cartilage
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1 AREOLAR TISSUES
The most general connective tissue found in the body. semi-sold & permeable contains yellow elastic & white fibres, fibrocytes & mast cells Mast cells produce histamine (protection allergic reactions) & heparin (anti-coagulant, prevents clotting) Function: Found all over the body connecting & supporting other tissues e.g. under the skin, between muscles, support blood vessels & nerves & in the alimentary canal

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2 ADIPOSE TISSUES
This is also known as fatty tissue Made of fat cells containing fat globules Found between muscle fibres and, with areolar tissue, under the skin giving the body a smooth, continuous outline Also found around the kidneys and the back of the eyes

Function: Protective & has insulatory properties Helps retain body heat because it is a poor conductor of heat & also a food reserve

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3 LYMPHOID TISSUES
Semi-solid tissue Some white fibres Lots of lymphocytes cells & reticular (netlike) cells which have a disease control function - the cell engulfs bacteria & destroys it (phagocytosis) Function: Forms lymphatic system cells & blood cells They protects against disease Found in lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, tonsils, in the wall of large intestines, the appendix, and in the small intestine Peyers patch
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4 YELLOW ELASTIC TISSUE

Mainly composed of elastic fibres Capable of considerable extension & recoil Function: To enable stretch & recoil e.g. forms lung tissue, bronchi & trachea Large arteries, stomach, bladder & any other organs that need to stretch & recoil
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5 WHITE FIBROUS TISSUE

Strongly connective but not very elastic Closely packed bundles of collagen fibres
Function: Connection & protection of body parts Forms ligaments & periosteum of bone Forms outer protection of organs e.g. kidneys, the brain, muscles fascia & tendons

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6 BONE TISSUES
Hardest connective tissues in the body, 2 types, - Compact: hard & dense/thick bone for strength - Found at the end of long bones - Red bone marrow only exist in cancellous bone which produces billions of blood cells every day in adults To support & protect the body and all its organs, as well as produce blood cells in bone marrow Composition of bone tissue is 25% water, 30% organic material, 45% inorganic salts
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- Cancellous: for structure bearing & cellular development

- spongy appearance, is often

called spongy bones

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7 BLOOD
Fluid connective tissues, containing 45% cells and 55% plasma. Cell content is erythrocytes (red blood cells), leucocytes (white blood cells) & thrombocytes (platelets) Function: To transport nutrients (food) & oxygen to all the cells of the body To remove waste from them (erythrocytes) To fight infection (leucocytes) To clot (thrombocytes)

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8 CARTILAGE
Firm, tough & solid tissue Contains cells called chondrocytes. There are 3 types of cartilages:
Hyaline Yellow elastic cartilage White fibrocartilage

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HYALINE
Bluish-white, smooth, particularly resilient Connecting & protecting Helps to reduce friction and acts as a shock absorber Found on parts of the bone which form joints, forms costal (rib) cartilages, the C shaped rings that keep the windpipe open - larynx, trachea & bronchi
pg111

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YELLOW ELASTIC CARTILAGE

Yellow elastic cartilage, contains fibrocytes (pg19 specialized cells responsible for the production of areolar, collagen and elastin tissues) and chondrocytes

Function: It is flexible and readily springs back into shape. Found in body parts that needs to move freely e.g. pinna (upper part of the ear - cartilage part of the ear), at the tip of the nose & the epiglottis
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WHITE FIBROCARTILAGE
White fibres contains chondrocyte cells Very tough & slightly flexible Where great strength is required To absorb shock e.g. forms intervertebral discs (disc between the bones that form the spine) and, semi-lunar cartilages (the 3 flaps at the entrance of the aorta and the pulmonary artery) Shock absorber found between the articulating surfaces of the knee joint bones, also found in the hip & shoulder sockets
pg58

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Membranes
There are 3 types of membrane in the body:

1) Mucus Membrane
Description Produces a slimy, sticky fluid called mucus, which lubricates the surfaces and prevents them from drying out. Where found in body Lines the surfaces in the body that open to the outside, such as the digestive tract, air passages, urinary tract and reproductive tract.

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Membranes
2) Synovial Membrane Description Produces a thick fluid, rather like egg white, called synovial fluid. The fluid cushions and lubricates the ends of the bones Where found in body Lines the spaces around certain joints, such as the knee joint.

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Membranes
3) Serous Membrane Description Produces a watery fluid called serous fluid, which enables organs to slide freely against each other to prevent friction Where found in body Surrounds the lungs, the heart and the organs in the Abdomen

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