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|legal_system = <!-- 英国法系在其各组成国中不同(如苏格兰采用混合法系)故此不应一概称英美法系 -->
}}
'''大不列顛暨北愛爾蘭聯合王國'''({{lang-en|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland}}),通稱'''英国'''{{NoteTag|现今中文的“英国”一词源于“England”([[英格兰]])。“英国”现为《[[1707年聯合法令]]》实行以来统治[[大不列顛島]]全境的[[大不列顛王國]]与联合王国之通称,但有时亦可作为[[英格兰王国]]与现今英格兰之别称<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=vXsOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA235 Yapp, Peter, p.&nbsp;235. ''The Travellers' Dictionary of Quotation''] {{Wayback|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vXsOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA235 |date=20230826235019 }}. Retrieved October 2012</ref>。}}<ref>{{cite book|author=許介鱗 |title=英國史綱 |isbn=978-957-14-0707-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=克里斯托弗·丹尼尔 |title=周末读完英国史 |translator1= 候艳 |translator2=劳佳|publisher=上海交通大学出版社 |date= 2009-04|isbn=978-7-313-05691-7}}</ref>,亦簡稱'''联合王国'''{{NoteTag|早期联合国中文档案亦称「'''英联王国'''」。}}({{lang|en|United Kingdom}},缩写作{{lang|en|UK}})或'''大不列颠'''({{lang|en|Great Britain}}),是位於[[西歐]]並具有[[英國海外領地|海外領地]]{{NoteTag|[[安圭拉]]、[[英属南极领地]]、[[百慕大]]、[[英属印度洋领地]]、[[英属维尔京群岛]]、[[开曼群岛]]、[[福克蘭群岛]]、[[直布罗陀]]、[[蒙特塞拉特]]、[[圣赫勒拿、阿森松和特里斯坦-达库尼亚]]、[[特克斯和凯科斯群岛]]、[[皮特凯恩群岛]]、[[南乔治亚和南桑威奇群岛]]和[[阿克罗蒂里和德凯利亚]]均為英國之海外领地,它們為联合王国的一部分。|name=fourteen}}的[[主權國家]],由[[英格蘭]]、[[威爾斯]]、[[蘇格蘭]]及[[北愛爾蘭]]所組成。英國位于[[歐洲大陸]]西北面,地理範圍包括[[大不列颠岛]]、[[爱尔兰岛]]东北部分及一系列较小岛屿<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of Great Britain in English |url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/Great-Britain?q=Great+Britain |accessdate=2014-10-29 |publisher=Oxford University Press |quote=Great Britain is the name for the island that comprises England, Scotland, and Wales, although the term is also used loosely to refer to the United Kingdom. |archive-date=2016-08-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160814114302/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/great-britain?q=Great+Britain |dead-url=no }}</ref>。英国本土和另一国家唯一的陆上国境线位于[[北爱尔兰]],和[[爱尔兰|爱尔兰共和国]]相邻{{NoteTag|北爱尔兰是英国唯一同另一国共享国境线的部分;英国的两块[[英国海外领地|海外领地]]亦同其他国家相邻:[[直布罗陀]]([[西班牙]])和[[阿克罗蒂里和德凯利亚]]([[塞浦路斯|塞浦路斯共和国]]、[[北塞浦路斯|北塞浦路斯土耳其共和国]]及[[塞浦路斯联合国缓冲区]])。}}。英国由[[大西洋]]所环绕,东为[[北海 (大西洋)|北海]],南为[[英吉利海峡]],西南偏南为[[凱爾特海]],與爱尔兰隔[[愛爾蘭海]]相望。该国总面积达{{convert|244376|km2|sqmi}},为世界面积[[世界各国和地区面积列表|第80大]]的[[主权国家]]及欧洲面积第11大的主权国家,2022年人口約6,760万<ref>{{Cite web|title=Population estimates for the UK, England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland - Office for National Statistics|url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/bulletins/annualmidyearpopulationestimates/mid2022|website=www.ons.gov.uk|access-date=2024-08-21|archive-date=2024-10-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006045859/https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/bulletins/annualmidyearpopulationestimates/mid2022|dead-url=no}}</ref>,为全球[[国家人口列表|第21名]]及歐洲第3名。
 
英国为[[君主立宪制]]国家,實行[[議會制]]的[[民主]][[政体|政體]]<ref>[http://www.royal.gov.uk/MonarchUK/HowtheMonarchyworks/Whatisconstitutionalmonarchy.aspx The British Monarchy, ''What is constitutional monarchy?''] {{Wayback|url=http://www.royal.gov.uk/MonarchUK/HowtheMonarchyworks/Whatisconstitutionalmonarchy.aspx |date=20190604151257 }}. Retrieved 17 July 2013</ref><ref name="factbook" />。其[[首都]][[伦敦]]为[[全球城市]]A++级别城市和[[国际金融中心]],大都会区人口达1,380万,为欧洲第三大<ref>The 30 Largest Urban Agglomerations Ranked by Population Size at Each Point in Time, 1950-2030, [http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/CD-ROM/ World Urbanization Prospects, the 2014 revision] {{Wayback|url=http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/CD-ROM/|date=20150218125411}}, Population Division of the [[United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs]]. Retrieved 22 February 2015.</ref>。现任[[英国君主]]为國王[[查爾斯三世]],於2022年9月8日即位。英国由[[英國的構成國|四个构成国]]组成,分别为[[英格兰]]、[[苏格兰]]、[[威尔士]]和[[北爱尔兰]]<ref name="page823">{{Cite web |title=Countries within a country |accessdate=2015-03-08 |date=2003-01-10 |publisher=Prime Minister's Office |url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http://www.number10.gov.uk/Page823 |archive-date=2015-04-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150401232410/http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http://www.number10.gov.uk/Page823 |dead-url=no }}</ref>,其中后三者在[[权力下放]]体系之下,各自拥有一定的权力<ref name="devoladmins">{{Cite web |title=Devolution of powers to Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland |url=https://www.gov.uk/devolution-of-powers-to-scotland-wales-and-northern-ireland#devolved-administrations |accessdate=2013-04-17 |publisher=United Kingdom Government |quote=In a similar way to how the government is formed from members from the two Houses of Parliament, members of the devolved legislatures nominate ministers from among themselves to comprise an executive, known as the devolved administrations... |archive-date=2013-07-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130718065448/https://www.gov.uk/devolution-of-powers-to-scotland-wales-and-northern-ireland#devolved-administrations |dead-url=no }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/7859034.stm |title=Fall in UK university students |date=2009-01-29 |work=BBC News |access-date=2016-03-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225192806/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/7859034.stm |archive-date=2009-02-25 |dead-url=no }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Country Overviews: United Kingdom |url=http://www.transport-research.info/web/countryprofiles/uk.cfm |accessdate=2010-03-28 |publisher=Transport Research Knowledge Centre |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100404062853/http://www.transport-research.info/web/countryprofiles/uk.cfm |archivedate=2010-04-04 |deadurl=yes }}</ref>。三地首府分别为[[爱丁堡]]、[[加的夫]]和[[贝尔法斯特]]。附近的[[马恩岛]]、[[根西|根西行政区]]及[[泽西|泽西行政区]]并非联合王国的一部分,而为[[王冠属地|皇家屬地]],[[英国政府]]负责其国防及外交事务<ref>{{Cite web |title=Key facts about the United Kingdom |url=http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/LivingintheUK/DG_10012517 |accessdate=2015-03-06 |publisher=[[Directgov]] |archiveurl=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20121015000000/http:/www.direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/LivingintheUK/DG_10012517 |archivedate=2012-10-15 |quote=<blockquote style="padding-top:0em;margin-top:0em;padding-left:0em;padding-right:0em;">The full title of this country is 'the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland'. Great Britain is made up of England, Scotland and Wales. The United Kingdom (UK) is made up of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. 'Britain' is used informally, usually meaning the United Kingdom.<br />The Channel Islands and the Isle of Man are not part of the UK.</blockquote> |dead-url=no }}</ref>。
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{{Main|英格兰历史|苏格兰历史|威尔士历史|北爱尔兰历史}}
[[File:Bayeux Tapestry WillelmDux.jpg|thumb|[[贝叶挂毯]]描绘的1066年[[黑斯廷斯之战|黑斯廷斯战役]]经过]]
現在的英國領土是過去的幾百年中多次合併的結果。在10世紀時,[[蘇格蘭王國]]和[[英格蘭王國]]各自是獨立的國家。1155年,英王[[亨利二世 (英格兰)|亨利二世]]获得[[教宗]]赐予的爱尔兰作为自己的封建领地,并于1171年正式出兵,1177年控制了爱尔兰大部分地区。1284年,[[威尔士公国|威爾斯公國]]被英格蘭国王[[爱德华一世]]征服,而后实际被英格兰王国控制<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Statute of Rhuddlan |url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100419253 |publisher=Oxford Reference |accessdate=2014-07-26 |journal= |author= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141113220641/http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100419253 |archive-date=2014-11-13 |dead-url=no }}</ref><ref name="RDEOGB1999">{{Cite book |title=Illustrated Encyclopedia of Britain |url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000unse_r1i1 |publisher=Reader's Digest |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-276-42412-0 |location=London |page=[https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000unse_r1i1/page/459 459] |quote=A country and principality within the mainland of Britain&nbsp;... about half a million}}</ref>,直至1535年成為英格蘭的一部分<ref name="BBC Tudors">{{Cite web |title=Wales under the Tudors |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/tudors/wales_tudors_01.shtml |accessdate=2010-09-21 |date=2009-11-05 |publisher=BBC |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/67yH03zDv?url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/tudors/wales_tudors_01.shtml |archive-date=2012-05-27 |dead-url=no }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Laws in Wales Act 1535 (repealed 21.12.1993) |url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/aep/Hen8/27/26/contents |accessdate=2014-07-26 |publisher=legislation.gov.uk |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141020005435/http://www.legislation.gov.uk/aep/Hen8/27/26/contents |archive-date=2014-10-20 |dead-url=no }}</ref>。1296年,爱德华一世又趁苏格兰王位继承危机占领[[苏格兰王国]]。然而以[[威廉·華萊士]]和[[罗伯特一世 (苏格兰)|罗伯特·布鲁斯]]为首的苏格兰贵族不断{{le|第一次苏格兰独立战争|First War of Scottish Independence|发起叛乱}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Scotland's History: The Wars of Independence |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/history/articles/the_wars_of_independence/ |website=BBC |access-date=2024-04-07 |archive-date=2010-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100804023809/http://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/history/articles/the_wars_of_independence/ |dead-url=no }}; {{Cite web |title=The Scottish Wars of Independence, 1286–1328 |url=http://www.educationscotland.gov.uk/higherscottishhistory/warsofindependence/index.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004063959/http://www.educationscotland.gov.uk/higherscottishhistory/warsofindependence/index.asp |archive-date=4 October 2013 |website=Education Scotland }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Macnamee |first=Colm |title=The Wars of the Bruces: England and Ireland 1306–1328 |year=2006 |place=Edinburgh |publisher=Donald |isbn=978-0859766531}} p. 63</ref>,英格兰始终无法有效控制新征服的土地。1307年爱德华骤逝后战局很快恶化,他的继任者[[爱德华二世]]在[[班诺克本战役]]中遭到惨败,于1323年被迫承认[[阿布羅斯宣言|苏格兰独立]]。14世纪中叶的{{le|第二次苏格兰独立战争|Second War of Scottish Independence}}后,尽管英格兰仍尝试武力吞并北方邻国,但从未成功过。
 
[[File:Treaty of Union.jpg|thumb|[[1707年聯合法令|《1707年联合法令》]]使整个[[大不列顛島|大不列颠岛]]统合为一个国家]]
1542年,因[[亨利八世]]与[[羅馬教廷|罗马教廷]]决裂,之前的教皇封地不再有效,亨利八世加冕为[[愛爾蘭國王|爱尔兰国王]],[[愛爾蘭王國|爱尔兰王国]]建立。1603年,英格蘭王國和蘇格蘭王國兩國在[[詹姆士六世及一世|詹姆斯六世及一世]]的治下成為[[1603年聯合法令|共主邦聯]]<ref>{{Cite web|author=John Daniel McVey|title=The Union of The Crowns 1603 - 2003|url=http://uotc.scran.ac.uk/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303165610/http://uotc.scran.ac.uk/|archive-date=2016-03-03|accessdate=2013-10-25|publisher=Uotc.scran.ac.uk|dead-url=no}}</ref><ref>David Lawrence Smith, ''A History of the Modern British Isles, 1603–1707: The Double Crown'' (1998), Chapter 2</ref>,1707年通过[[1707年聯合法令|《1707年聯合法令》]]正式合併為[[大不列顛王國]]<ref name="Mitchison2002p314">R. Mitchison, ''A History of Scotland'' (London: Routledge, 3rd edn., 2002), {{ISBN|0415278805}}, p. 314.</ref>。1801年,已成为共主联邦的大不列顛王國和爱尔兰王国合併,组成[[大不列顛與愛爾蘭聯合王國]]<ref>The Acts of Union passed by both parliaments in 1800 and which created the United Kingdom, came into effect on 1 January 1801.</ref>。1922年,[[愛爾蘭自由邦]]成立<ref>House of Commons Foreign Affairs Committee (1 May 2013). ''[https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201213/cmselect/cmfaff/643/643.pdf Foreign policy considerations for the UK and Scotland in the event of Scotland becoming an independent country] {{Wayback|url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201213/cmselect/cmfaff/643/643.pdf |date=20201218111009 }}''. London: The Stationery Office. Ev 106.</ref>,而[[北愛爾蘭]]則仍由英国政府控制,英国国名也在1927年改为大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国<ref>{{Cite book |title=Studies in the history of tax law |last=Oliver |first=J. D. B. |publisher=Hart Publishing |year=2004 |isbn=1841134732 |series=Tax Law History Conference |location=Oxford ; Portland, Or |chapter=What's in a Name? |chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=f9FGwkXiIS0C&lpg=PA188&dq=Royal%20and%20Parliamentary%20Titles%20Act%201927&pg=PA187#v=onepage&q=Royal%20and%20Parliamentary%20Titles%20Act%201927&f=false |editors=John Tiley (ed.) |access-date=2019-06-13 |archive-date=2020-09-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200918013058/https://books.google.com/books?id=f9FGwkXiIS0C&lpg=PA188&dq=Royal%20and%20Parliamentary%20Titles%20Act%201927&pg=PA187#v=onepage&q=Royal%20and%20Parliamentary%20Titles%20Act%201927&f=false |dead-url=no }}</ref>。
 
=== 英格兰内战与光荣革命 ===
{{Main|英格兰内战|斯图亚特王朝复辟|光荣革命}}
[[红白玫瑰战争]]结束后[[都铎王朝]]建立,英格兰贵族势力遭到削弱,为英国[[君主專制|专制王权]]的发展提供了土壤。[[亨利八世]]继位后提出“[[君權神授說|君权神授]]”理论,推动[[英格兰宗教改革|宗教改革]]侵吞大量教产,设立[[星室法院]],使国王得以脱离议会独立执政。然而到17世纪,王室因为战争和长期挥霍财政状况日益拮据<ref>{{Cite book|title=''King Charles I''|author=|last=Gregg|first=Pauline|publisher=Dent|year=1981|isbn=0-460-04437-0|location=London|pages=40}}</ref>,以至于[[詹姆士六世及一世|詹姆斯一世]]不得不经常召开议会<ref>{{cite book |last= Anderson|first= Angela |author-link= |title= An Introduction to Stuart Britain, 1603–1714 |publisher= Hodder Education |series= Access to History |year= 1999 |doi= |isbn= 9780340737446 }}</ref>筹措资金。其子[[查理一世 (英格蘭)|查理一世]]不愿意和议会妥协,自1629年后维持{{le|十一年专制期|Personal Rule|个人的专横统治}}长达11年时间<ref>{{Cite book|title=''Charles I: The Personal Monarch''|last=Carlton|first=Charles|publisher=Routledge|year=1995|isbn=0-4151-2141-8|edition=2nd ed|location=London|pages=153-154}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite web|title=The Personal Rule of Charles I|url=https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/parliamentaryauthority/civilwar/overview/personal-rule/|website=英国议会官网|language=en}}</ref>,但迫于[[主教戰爭|苏格兰叛乱]]的压力还是不得不先后召开[[短期议会|短期]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/charlesipolitica00cust|title=''Charles I: A Political Life''|last=Cust|first=Richard|publisher=Pearson Education|year=2005|isbn=0-5820-7034-1|location=Harlow|pages=251}}</ref>与[[長期議會|长期议会]]寻求后者对战争的支持<ref name=":9" />。之后双方的矛盾愈演愈烈最终导致了[[英格兰内战]]的爆发。
 
保王党的军队在[[第一次英格兰内战|第一次内战]]前期取得过一定优势,然而1645年的[[内斯比战役]]后其被议会的[[新模范军]]彻底摧毁<ref>{{Cite web|title=Battle of Naseby {{!}} Summary {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Naseby|website=www.britannica.com|language=en|access-date=2024-10-06}}</ref>,查理向苏格兰军队投降,随即被移交给英国议会。1648年保王党人挑起[[第二次英格兰内战]],但很快就被议会军镇压,再度抓回逃亡的查理一世后,已经清洗了同情国王议员的[[残缺议会]]指控其犯有[[叛国罪]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/lastdaysofcharle0000edwa/page/100/mode/2up|title=''The Last Days of Charles I''|last=Edwards|first=Graham|publisher=Sutton Publishing|year=1999|isbn=0-7509-2079-3|location=Stroud|pages=100}}</ref>,法庭裁定罪名成立并[[查理一世的處決|将之处决]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://openlibrary.org/books/OL13527275M/The_constitutional_documents_of_the_Puritan_revolution_1625-1660|title=''The Constitutional Documents of the Puritan Revolution 1625–1660''|author-link=塞缪尔·罗森·加德纳|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1906|edition=3rd ed|location=Oxford|pages=371–374}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Death warrant of King Charles I - Wikisource, the free online library|url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Death_warrant_of_King_Charles_I|website=en.wikisource.org|language=en|access-date=2024-10-06}}</ref>,[[圓顱黨|圆颅党]]随即废止上议院建立由[[国务会议 (英格兰)|国务会议]]掌控的[[英格兰共和国|共和国]]<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/lastdaysofcharle0000edwa/page/100/mode/2up|title=''The Last Days of Charles I''|last=Edwards|first=Graham|publisher=Sutton Publishing|year=1999|isbn=0-7509-2079-3|location=Stroud|pages=190}}</ref>。[[奥利弗·克伦威尔]]作为新模范军指挥官于1653年强行解散残缺议会<ref>{{Cite book|title=''Why was Charles I Executed?''|last=Holmes|first=Clive|publisher=Hambledon Continuum|year=2006|isbn=1-8528-5282-8|location=London & New York|pages=121}}</ref>,自任“[[护国公]]”进行独裁统治<ref name=":10" />直到1658年去世。
 
1660年[[查理二世 (英格兰)|查理二世]]返回伦敦[[斯图亚特王朝复辟|复辟斯特亚特王朝]]<ref>{{Cite book|title=''Why was Charles I Executed?''|last=Holmes|first=Clive|publisher=Hambledon Continuum|year=2006|isbn=1-8528-5282-8|location=London & New York|pages=175-176}}</ref>,由于没有合法子嗣,继承王位的将是他的幼弟[[詹姆斯二世 (英格蘭)|詹姆斯二世]],然而后者因为[[天主教會|天主教]]信仰[[排斥危机|并未受到广泛欢迎]],其登基后颁布的一系列宗教宽容措施激怒了信仰[[新教]]的英格兰居民,成为[[光荣革命]]导火索。[[玛丽二世 (英格兰)|玛丽二世]]和[[奥兰治亲王]][[威廉三世 (英格兰)|威廉三世]]得到[[輝格黨 (英國)|国内反对派]]{{le|致威廉的邀请|Personal Rule|对其发出的邀请}}<ref>{{Cite book|title=''The Revolution of 1688 in England''|last=Jones|first=J. R|publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson|year=1988|isbn=978-0-297-99569-2|pages=222}}</ref>,于1689年11月率领荷兰军队在[[托貝|托贝]]登陆<ref>{{Cite web|title=James II {{!}} Biography, Religion, Accomplishments, Successor, & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/James-II-king-of-England-Scotland-and-Ireland|website=www.britannica.com|date=2024-09-21|language=en|access-date=2024-10-06}}</ref>,接受《[[权利法案]]》后于次年加冕为[[英格兰国王]]<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|title=Glorious Revolution {{!}} Summary, Significance, Causes, & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Glorious-Revolution|website=www.britannica.com|date=2024-09-13|language=en|access-date=2024-10-06}}</ref>,英国“议会至上”的政治原则自此确立<ref name=":11" />。
 
=== 对外殖民和大英帝国 ===
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[[File:Brexit crowds in Parliament Square.jpg|thumb|2020年12月31日晚,英国脱欧支持者聚集在[[国会广场]]倒数零点的脱离时刻]]
英國是[[英聯邦]]([[大英帝國]]解體後继承的松散組織)元首国,并在1973年正式加入[[歐盟]]。2010年5月11日,[[大衛·卡麥隆]]正式接替[[戈登·布朗]],出任[[英國首相]]。2016年6月23日,英國舉行脫歐公投,結果為52%同意、48%反對,因此英國政府決定脫離歐盟,開始協商達成退出歐盟協議。但[[蘇格蘭]]首席部長[[尼古拉·史特金]](Nicola Sturgeon)在得悉蘇格蘭32個選區均是「留歐」勝出後,表示蘇格蘭人民已經果斷表態。她認為,選舉結果清楚顯示蘇格蘭人民希望未來成為歐盟一部分。[[蘇格蘭民族黨]]早前的宣言指出,假如環境跟2014年公投時有「顯著及實質的改變」——例如蘇格蘭被迫脫歐——將會嘗試重啟獨立公投。而[[北愛爾蘭]]的[[新芬黨]]主席迪可蘭.柯尼(Declan Kearney)則措辭強硬,認為結果違反北愛人民的意願,英國政府亦無法代表他們的經濟及政治利益。柯尼亦重申他在2019年3月的呼籲,認為北愛爾蘭應該啟動國界公投,決定是否脫離英國,「回歸」唯一接壤英國邊境的[[歐盟]]成員國——[[愛爾蘭]]。以上事件反映出此次的脫歐決定可能對英國帶來嚴重衝擊。2019年12月20日,議院以358票對234票通過,自2020年1月31日起正式[[英國退出歐洲聯盟|退出歐盟]]<ref>{{Cite book |title=英國議會通過脫歐協議 明年1月31日脫離歐盟 |year=2019-12-20 |chapter=英國議會通過脫歐協議 |chapterurl=https://www.bbc.com/zhongwen/trad/uk-50866297 |editors=英國廣播公司 |access-date=2020-01-29 |archive-date=2019-12-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224060833/https://www.bbc.com/zhongwen/trad/uk-50866297 |dead-url=no }}</ref>。
 
 
== 地理 ==
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}}
 
英国是一个[[君主立宪制|君主立宪]]国家,实行[[西敏制|威斯敏斯特]][[议会民主制]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stepan |first1=Alfred |last2=Linz |first2=Juan J. |last3=Minoves |first3=Juli F. |date=2014 |title=Democratic Parliamentary Monarchies |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/content/crossref/journals/journal_of_democracy/v025/25.2.stepan.html |journal=Journal of Democracy |language=en |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=35–36 |doi=10.1353/jod.2014.0032 |issn=1086-3214 |s2cid=154555066}}</ref>。尽管由四个部分联合组成,但其是一个[[中央集权]]的[[单一制]]国家<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lewer |first=Andrew |date=5 May 2021 |title=The UK is one of the most centralised advanced democracies – it's time that changed |url=https://www.newstatesman.com/spotlight/2021/05/the-uk-is-one-of-the-most-centralised-advanced-democracies-its-time-that-changed |access-date=3 July 2023 |website=New Statesman |language=en-US |archive-date=3 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703131907/https://www.newstatesman.com/spotlight/2021/05/the-uk-is-one-of-the-most-centralised-advanced-democracies-its-time-that-changed |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Centralisation Nation: Britain's system of local government and its impact on the national economy |url=https://www.centreforcities.org/?post_type=publication&p=40951 |access-date=3 July 2023 |website=Centre for Cities |language=en-US |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328141833/https://www.centreforcities.org/publication/centralisation-nation/ |url-status=live }}</ref>。英国没有成文宪法,{{le|英国的议会主权|Parliamentary sovereignty in the United Kingdom|最高主权}}属于[[英国议会|议会]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Parliamentary Sovereignty |url=https://www.parliament.uk/site-information/glossary/parliamentary-sovereignty |access-date=19 July 2021 |website=[[parliament.uk]] |archive-date=11 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210811195135/https://www.parliament.uk/site-information/glossary/parliamentary-sovereignty/ |url-status=live }}</ref>,其由民选的[[英国下议院|下议院]],指定的[[英国上议院|上议院]]和[[英国王室]]组成<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|title=What is the role of Parliament?|url=https://www.parliament.uk/about/how/role/|website=英国议会官网|language=en|access-date=2024-10-02|archive-date=2024-04-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240404025710/https://www.parliament.uk/about/how/role/|dead-url=no}}</ref>。议会的主要事务在两院处理<ref name=":8" />,一项提案要成为[[英國國會法令|国会法令]]需要得到[[御准]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Royal Assent |url=https://www.parliament.uk/about/how/laws/passage-bill/lords/lrds-royal-assent |access-date=19 July 2021 |website=parliament.uk |archive-date=16 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210716022947/https://www.parliament.uk/about/how/laws/passage-bill/lords/lrds-royal-assent/ |url-status=live }}</ref>。除了四个[[英國的構成國|构成国]],[[泽西岛]]、[[马恩岛]]和[[根西岛]]等君主领地名义上不是联合王国的一部分,但也是由联合王国政府来管理其国防和外交事务,包括由英国议会为这些领地立法。英国国内现存的[[蘭開斯特公國|兰开斯特]]和[[康沃尔公国|康沃尔]]两个公国均为王室私有的领地和产业,由独立的[[信託機構|信托机构]]运作以为英国君主提供收入,且不受[[英國皇家財產局|英国皇家财产局]]的管辖<ref>{{cite web| title=Privy Purse and Duchy of Lancaster| url=http://www.royal.gov.uk/TheRoyalHousehold/Royalfinances/Sourcesoffunding/PrivyPurseandDuchyofLancaster.aspx| publisher=Royal Household| accessdate=2011-09-30| archive-date=2011-09-25| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110925005204/http://www.royal.gov.uk/TheRoyalHousehold/Royalfinances/Sourcesoffunding/PrivyPurseandDuchyofLancaster.aspx| dead-url=yes}}</ref>。
 
=== 历史发展 ===
[[File:Atlas Van der Hagen-KW1049B11 023-Alle de bijsondere en particuliere Ceremonien, geschied in en omtrent de Krooning WILLIAM de III. en MARIA de II.jpeg|thumb|[[玛丽二世 (英格兰)|玛丽女王]]与丈夫[[威廉三世 (英格兰)|威廉三世]]在接受《[[1689年权利法案|1689权利法案]]》后共同由[[伦敦主教]]加冕为王]]
英國[[民主制度]]的形成是一个缓慢渐进的过程,英国议会出现于13世纪<ref>{{Cite web|title=The origins of Parliament|url=https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transformingsociety/electionsvoting/chartists/overview/originsofparliament/|website=英国议会官方网站|language=en|url-status=live}}</ref>,早期的成就有《[[大憲章|大宪章]]》与[[模范议会]]等,代表人物如[[第六代莱斯特伯爵西蒙·德孟福尔|德蒙福特]]。[[中世纪]]英国议会承袭的古典民主制度与近代兴起的[[資產階級|资产阶级]][[代議制民主|代议制民主]]截然不同,但其对于民主观念的启蒙和发展有着不可忽视的意义。经过[[英格蘭內戰|英国内战]]、[[残缺议会]]和[[克伦威尔|大护国公]]以及[[光荣革命]]的数次洗礼,《[[1689年权利法案|1689权利法案]]》之后,王权受到很大削弱。[[安妮 (英国女王)|安妮女王]]是最后一个拒绝[[御准]]的英国君主,而其子[[乔治一世 (英国)|乔治一世]]任命了英国第一位首相,在他之后,国王不再主持内阁会议,但時會列席<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/zhongwen/trad/uk_study/2012/12/121218_queen_cabinet |title=英女王出席內閣會議慶祝登基60年 |date=2012-12-18 |newspaper=[[BBC中文網]] |language=zh |accessdate=2024-07-13 |archive-date=2024-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006045902/https://www.bbc.com/zhongwen/trad/uk_study/2012/12/121218_queen_cabinet |dead-url=no }}</ref>。
 
[[英國上議院]]議員由貴族與[[主教]]擔任,並非選舉產生,[[英国下议院]]議員最初由各地[[貴族]]、大[[土地主|地主]]、[[士紳]]、[[富豪]]操縱指派<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Burgesses|url=https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/originsofparliament/birthofparliament/overview/burgesses/|website=英国议会官网|language=en|url-status=live}}</ref>,[[平民]]並無選舉權,同时[[贿选]]情况严重<ref>{{cite book|last=Roderick Cavaliero|title=Strangers in the Land: The Rise and Decline of the British Indian Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xE4BAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA65|year=2002|publisher=I.B.Tauris|page=65|isbn=9780857717078|access-date=2024-04-02|archive-date=2024-10-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006045746/https://books.google.com/books?id=xE4BAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA65|dead-url=no}}</ref>。选区长期不变也使得议会席位严重僵化,1688年后再无新的市镇获得代表权,导致了已經[[腐敗選區|荒涼的市鎮]]仍能派出議員,新興城市如[[曼徹斯特]]或[[伯明罕]]卻没有代表的怪现象。[[啟蒙時代|启蒙运动]]后,英国民众开始追求更加完善的民主制度。1832年執政的[[輝格黨 (英國)|辉格党]]给予成年男性家境小康者選舉權,推动中产阶级参政。1836年开始的[[宪章运动]]促进了选区改划与[[普选权]]落实。1867年執政的[[保守黨 (英國)|保守黨]]政府進一步降低選民的財產限制,使工人获得了選舉權,1884年[[自由党 (英国)|自由黨]]政府才完全取消選民的財產限制,使包括农民在内的所有成年男性拥有選舉權。英國的女性於[[第一次世界大戰]]後獲得選舉權。上议院自19世纪后期权力就不断被削弱,执政的自由党政府由于當時保守黨控制的上院多次窒阻下院已经通过的法案,通過《[[1911年國會法令|1911國會法令]]》剥夺上院否决[[拨款法案|拨款]]及{{tsl|en|public bills|公共法案}}的权力,使其仅能搁置法案生效最多两年时间(延宕否决)。1949年,工黨政府通過《{{tsl|en|Parliament Act 1949|1949國會法令|}}》,上院延宕权限由两年减为一年。1997年上台的工黨政府再改革上議院,《[[1999年上議院法令|1999上议院法令]]》颁布后,[[世袭贵族]]失去了进入上院的资格,议员改由全體[[終身貴族]]出任。終身貴族現時不少均為過去曾擔任內閣成員和下議院議員出任。
 
=== 现行制度 ===
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1806年,[[英国东印度公司|东印度公司]]派{{Le|查尔斯·格兰特|Charles Grant (British East India Company)}}在伦敦附近建立[[東印度公司書院|东印度公司书院]]以培训管理人员,该学院参考中国的[[科举|科举制]],以文科考试成绩作为录用标准,这是英国之后文官体系的雏形。
 
[[克里米亚战争]]期间,由于保守和自由两党激烈内斗,前线英军收到的补给严重不足,后勤管理一片混乱。为了保证国家的稳定运行,[[第一代伊兹利伯爵斯塔福德·诺思科特]]与[[查尔斯·特里维廉]]于1854年起草了[[关于建立常任文官制度的报告|《关于建立常任文官制度的报告》]]<ref>{{cite book|author= Charles E. Trevelyan|title=Report on the Organisation of the Permanent Civil Service, Together with a Letter from the Rev. B. Jowett.|url=https://www.civilservant.org.uk/library/1854_Northcote_Trevelyan_Report.pdf|year=1853|access-date=2024-04-18|archive-date=2024-09-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240926212820/https://www.civilservant.org.uk/library/1854_Northcote_Trevelyan_Report.pdf|dead-url=no}}</ref>,建议设置一个永久、统一、政治中立的文官体系,将负责日常工作的和从事政策制定及执行的官员做明确之区分。1855年,议会通过法案成立了{{Le|公务员委员会|Civil Service Commission (United Kingdom)}},负责监管文官的公开招募。首相[[威廉·格萊斯頓|威廉·格莱斯顿]]于1870年颁布[[樞密令|枢密令]],将诺斯科特-特里维廉提案完全付诸实施<ref>{{cite book|author=Simon Heffer|title=High Minds: The Victorians and the Birth of Modern Britain|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O1gbQwhBSiIC&pg=PA476|year=2013|page=476|publisher=Random House |isbn=9781446473825}}</ref>。
 
英国文官体系在建立的一百年来基本保持稳定。其在消除腐败、提供公共服务(即使在战争压力下)以及有效防止政治动荡方面取得了相当的成功。{{Le|约翰·冈瑟|John Gunther}}将其称之为“帝国坚不可摧的脊梁”<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.149663/2015.149663.Inside-Europe#page/n309/mode/2up | title=Inside Europe | publisher=Harper & Brothers | author=Gunther, John | author-link=John Gunther | location=New York | year=1940 | page=287}}</ref>。二战后随着科学技术专业知识的剧烈膨胀,之前专注于文科典籍的公务员考试不能适应现代政府的需要,工党政府在60年代进行了一系列优化公务员专业能力的改革。[[玛格丽特·撒切尔]]上台后相信[[自由市場|自由市场]]与[[小政府主義|小政府主义]],其对于公务员团队进行了人员裁撤和资金削减,并着手私有化某些公共服务部门,到1993年为止,49%的文官脱离政府各部,划入89个新组织的“机构”(agency)<ref>Patricia Greer, 1994,''Transforming Central Government: the Next Steps'', preface.</ref>,以求增强效率和管理。此后的[[约翰·梅杰内阁]]更提出“公民约定”(Citizen's Charter)计划,要求政府机构对公众承诺服务质量标准,如未达到标准则对受服务人进行赔偿。
第301行 ⟶ 第310行:
虽然英国宪法并非具体的法律文本,[[英国最高法院|最高法院]]仍承认存在一些基本原则,包括议会主权、[[法治]]、[[民主]]和[[国际法]]等<ref>See ''R (Miller) v Prime Minister'' [2019] UKSC 41 (Parliamentary sovereignty), ''R (UNISON) v Lord Chancellor'' [2017] [http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2017/51.html UKSC 51] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104095357/https://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2017/51.html|date=4 January 2023}}, [67] ff (rule of law), ''R (Animal Defenders International) v Secretary of State for Culture Media and Sport'' [2008] UKHL 15, [48] (democracy), ''R v Lyons'' [2002] [https://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/2002/44.html UKHL 44] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230122064021/https://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/2002/44.html|date=22 January 2023}}, [27] (international law).</ref>。英国宪法的根基是“议会至上”原则。所谓“议会至上”,是指[[法案]]一旦獲议会通过,便具有不可动摇的[[权威]]。宪法并没有像其他国家如[[美国]]、[[法国]]有至高无上地位;相反,理论上[[英国议会]]可以以通过一项普通[[法案]]的方式对英国宪法的内容加以改变。
 
英国法官在量刑时多会遵循判例,这也是英国普通法乃至[[海洋法系]]最重要的特点<ref>It is characteristic of the common law to adopt an approach based "on precedent, and on the development of the law incrementally and by analogy with established authorities". {{cite BAILII |litigants=Robinson v Chief Constable of West Yorkshire Police |year=2018 |court=UKSC |num=4 |pinpoint=para. 21}}</ref>,相比之下,大陆法系更加依赖成文法典和法律、法规,没有后者的规定法院就无权进行裁决<ref>''The Common Law and Civil Law Traditions'', Robbins Collection, University of California at Berkeley.[https://www.law.berkeley.edu/library/robbins/CommonLawCivilLawTraditions.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422031516/https://www.law.berkeley.edu/library/robbins/CommonLawCivilLawTraditions.html|date=22 April 2016}}</ref> 。19世纪中叶之前,相当数量的美国法庭判案都参考了英国惯例<ref>{{cite book |last1=Friedman |first1=Lawrence M. |title=A History of American Law |date=2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=9780190070915 |pages=83 |edition=4th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y5KwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA83 |access-date=11 August 2020}}</ref><ref>Elizabeth Gaspar Brown, "Frontier Justice: Wayne County 1796–1836", in ''Essays in Nineteenth-Century American Legal History'', ed. Wythe Holt, 676–703 (Westport, CT: [[Greenwood Press]], 1976): 686. Between 1808 and 1828, the briefs filed in court cases in the [[Territory of Michigan]] changed from a complete reliance on English sources of law to an increasing reliance on citations to American sources.</ref>,其对先例的依赖可见一斑。英国普通法受[[罗马法]]影响较小,这主要是因为英国的普通法体系发展较为成熟,很早就形成了全国性的普通法体系。而那时,法兰西王国下属的各个公国及伯爵领依然有其独特的习惯法,德国和意大利更是分裂为诸多独立的王国和其他政治体。15世纪随着部分国家中央集权的加强,统治者和法学家开始寻求罗马法和当地习惯法的结合,完成了多部优秀的作品<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law.berkeley.edu/library/robbins/CommonLawCivilLawTraditions.html|title=The Common Law and Civil Law Traditions|access-date=11 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422031516/https://www.law.berkeley.edu/library/robbins/CommonLawCivilLawTraditions.html|archive-date=22 April 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>。18世纪[[启蒙运动]]推崇古罗马的法治精神,因而[[法国大革命|大革命]]期间的法国深受[[罗马法]]和《[[民法大全]]》影响,[[国民公会]]颁布大量法令完善本国的[[成文法]]架构,逐步形成一套成熟的民法系统。随后爆发的[[拿破仑战争]]进一步发展法治精神<ref>"5. The judges are forbidden to pronounce, by way of general and legislative determination, on the causes submitted to them." [http://www.napoleon-series.org/research/government/code/book1/c_preliminary.html ''Code of Napoleon'', Decree of March 5, 1803, Law 5] {{Wayback|url=http://www.napoleon-series.org/research/government/code/book1/c_preliminary.html |date=20240714044748 }}</ref>,德意等国在制定[[民法典]]的过程中多参考《[[拿破仑法典]]》,就此形成迥异于英国的[[大陆法系]]。
 
=== 行政区划 ===
第772行 ⟶ 第781行:
==== 工業(工程) ====
[[File:Dore London.jpg|thumb|1870年,[[古斯塔夫·多雷]]所绘的伦敦工业区]]
18世纪中叶,英格兰地区依托着丰富的煤矿储量与较发达的资本主义商业模式开始进行[[第一次工业革命]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=British Industrial Revolution|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/British_Industrial_Revolution/|website=World History Encyclopedia|language=en|last=Cartwright|first=Mark|access-date=2024-04-03|archive-date=2024-09-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240917123403/https://www.worldhistory.org/British_Industrial_Revolution/|dead-url=no}}</ref>,随后在此世纪的后半叶,英国工业获得了长足发展,工业产值遥遥领先欧陆各国<ref>{{Cite web|title=第九章 迈向工业世界|url=https://www.marxists.org/chinese/hobsbawm/1962/09.htm|access-date=2023-05-17|website=www.marxists.org|archive-date=2023-05-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230517204926/https://www.marxists.org/chinese/hobsbawm/1962/09.htm|dead-url=no}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Industrial Revolution - Technology, Factories, Change {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Industrial-Revolution/The-first-Industrial-Revolution|website=www.britannica.com|language=en|access-date=2024-04-03}}</ref>,这使其一度靠着此优势得以[[大陆封锁|压制]]几乎战无不胜的[[拿破仑帝国]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=拿破仑大陆封锁政策的失败原因探析--中国期刊网|url=http://www.chinaqking.com/yc/2021/2992409.html|access-date=2023-05-17|website=www.chinaqking.com|archive-date=2023-05-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230517204926/http://www.chinaqking.com/yc/2021/2992409.html|dead-url=no}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Continental System|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Continental_System/|website=World History Encyclopedia|language=en|last=Mark|first=Harrison W.|access-date=2024-04-03}}</ref>。然而在19世纪中叶的[[第二次工业革命]]中,由于经济对[[帝国特惠制|殖民地倾销]]与[[金融系統|金融系统]]的依赖性加强,加之教育系统的缺陷,[[制造业|实体制造业]]无可逆转的被[[德意志帝國|德国]],[[美国]]超越<ref>{{Cite web|title=The decline and fall of the British economy - Works in Progress|url=https://worksinprogress.co/issue/the-decline-and-fall-of-britain/|website=worksinprogress.co|language=en-US|access-date=2024-04-03|archive-date=2024-09-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240920142007/https://worksinprogress.co/issue/the-decline-and-fall-of-britain/|dead-url=no}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=GRIN - Was Britain's relative economic decline before 1914 an inevitable consequence of foreign industrialisation or a manifestation of serious failings within the domestic economy?|url=https://www.grin.com/document/57446|website=www.grin.com|language=en|access-date=2024-04-03}}</ref>,失去了“世界工厂”的地位。二战后,英国经济一度因为中低端制造业的不景气和大英帝国的解体持续低迷,撒切尔夫人担任英国首相之后,力推许多利于金融服务业的政策,不断实行“[[去工業化|去工业化]]”,尽管成功挽救英国经济,其本土工业却进一步衰弱,制造业增加值占GDP的比重从1990年的16.67%下降到2019年的8.59%<ref>{{Cite web|title=英国工业因何衰落和空心化,新自由主义扮演了什么角色-瞭望周刊社|url=http://lw.xinhuanet.com/2021-06/22/c_1310021035.htm|access-date=2023-05-17|website=lw.xinhuanet.com|archive-date=2023-05-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230517204931/http://lw.xinhuanet.com/2021-06/22/c_1310021035.htm|dead-url=no}}</ref>。尽管如此,当今英國的工業在世界上仍占有重要地位,是歐洲最大的軍火、石油產品、電視、電腦和手機製造國。主要工業部門有:採礦、冶金、化工、電子電器、車輛、航空、航海、食品、飲料、菸草、輕紡、造紙、印刷和土木建築等<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.smmt.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/SMMT-Motor-Industry-Facts-2016.pdf |title=Motor Industry Facts 2016 |access-date=2016-10-13 |year=2016 |publisher=Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161014061717/http://www.smmt.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/SMMT-Motor-Industry-Facts-2016.pdf |archive-date=2016-10-14 |dead-url=yes }}</ref>。生物製藥、航空和國防是英國工業研發的重點,也是最具創新力和競爭力的產業<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2016/06/29/britains-aerospace-sector-soars-amid-fears-brexit-could-clip-its/ |first=Alan |last=Tovey |title=Britain's aerospace sector soars amid fears Brexit could clip its wings |newspaper=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |date=2016-06-29 |accessdate=2021-01-24 |archive-date=2021-05-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511045504/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2016/06/29/britains-aerospace-sector-soars-amid-fears-brexit-could-clip-its/ |dead-url=no }}</ref>。英製造業中紡織業最不景氣,但電子、光學設備、人造纖維和化工,特别是[[製藥工程|製藥]]行業仍保持雄厚實力<ref name="pharmsectorbis">{{cite web |url=http://www.bis.gov.uk/policies/business-sectors/biotechnology-pharmaceuticals-and-healthcare/pharmaceutical |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20121212135622/http://www.bis.gov.uk/policies/business-sectors/biotechnology-pharmaceuticals-and-healthcare/pharmaceutical |archive-date=2012-12-12 |title=The Pharmaceutical sector in the UK |publisher=Department for Business, Innovation & Skills |access-date=2015-03-09 |dead-url=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dh.gov.uk/prod_consum_dh/groups/dh_digitalassets/@dh/@en/@ps/documents/digitalasset/dh_113133.pdf |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20130107105354/http://www.dh.gov.uk/prod_consum_dh/groups/dh_digitalassets/%40dh/%40en/%40ps/documents/digitalasset/dh_113133.pdf |archive-date=2013-01-07 |title=Ministerial Industry Strategy Group&nbsp;– Pharmaceutical Industry: Competitiveness and Performance Indicators |publisher=Department of Health |access-date=2015-03-09 |dead-url=yes }}</ref>。
 
==== 能源業 ====
[[File:Oil platform in the North SeaPros.jpg|thumb|right|220px|[[北海油田]]]]2021年,英国是世界第14大能源消费国和第22大能源生产国<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Parliament|url=https://www.parliament.uk/about/how/role|website=[[parliament.uk]]|access-date=19 July 2021}}</ref>。英国拥有许多大型能源公司,包括六大[[石油]]和[[天然气]]公司中的两家——[[英国石油公司]]和[[殼牌|壳牌公司]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=&NA; |date=2010-01 |title=News from the 38th European Symposium on Clinical Pharmacy; 3–6 November 2009; Geneva |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/11204070-000000000-00000 |journal=Drugs &amp; Therapy Perspectives |volume=26 |issue=1 |doi=10.2165/11204070-000000000-00000 |issn=1172-0360}}</ref>。2021年,英国石油(和其他液体)日产量为93.5万桶,消费量为12.58万桶<ref name=":1" />,产量目前正在下降,自2005年以来,英国一直是石油的净进口国<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |date=1996-05-01 |title=Petroleum supply monthly, May 1996 with data from March 1996 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/244550 |access-date=2023-05-09 |archive-date=2024-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006050543/https://www.osti.gov/biblio/244550 |dead-url=no }}</ref>。2020年,英国已探明原油储量约为20亿桶<ref name=":2" />。
 
2021年,英国成为世界第21大天然气生产国<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1999-03-01 |title=Natural gas monthly, March 1999 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/334276 |access-date=2023-05-09 |archive-date=2024-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006050550/https://www.osti.gov/biblio/334276 |dead-url=no }}</ref>,产量目前正在下降,自2004年以來,英國一直是天然氣的淨進口國<ref name="eiagas">{{cite web |url=http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/United_Kingdom/NaturalGas.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110416085105/http://www.eia.gov/countries/country-data.cfm?fips=UK |archive-date=2011-04-16 |title=United Kingdom&nbsp;– Natural Gas |publisher=U.S. Energy Information Administration |access-date=2011-03-09 |dead-url=no }}</ref>。
 
在1990年代後期,[[核能電廠]]在英國的年發電量中佔約25%,但是隨著老舊的電廠被關閉以及與老化有關的問題影響了電廠的可利用性,核電廠的發電量逐漸下降。2023年,英国有9座核反应堆,正常发电量约占英国电力的15%<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1997-04-16 |title=Theoretical research in nuclear structure and nuclear collective motion. Final report, March 1, 1986--February 28, 1997 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/542049 |access-date=2023-05-09 |archive-date=2024-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006050410/https://www.osti.gov/biblio/542049 |dead-url=no }}</ref>。与德国和日本不同,目前有两个[[核反应堆|反应堆]]正在建设中,还有更多计划中的反应堆<ref>{{Cite web|date=2013-02-06|title=Exports from the United Kingdom|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/eco_surveys-gbr-2013-graph20-en|access-date=2023-05-09|website=dx.doi.org|archive-date=2024-10-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006050414/https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/economics/oecd-economic-surveys-united-kingdom-2013/exports-from-the-united-kingdom_eco_surveys-gbr-2013-graph20-en|dead-url=no}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yaffe |first=Philip |date=2023-02 |title=What To Say When You Don't Know What to Say |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/3584952 |journal=Ubiquity |volume=2023 |issue=February |doi=10.1145/3584952 |issn=1530-2180 |access-date=2023-05-09 |archive-date=2024-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006050408/https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3584952 |dead-url=no }}</ref>。在20世纪90年代末,核电站约占英国年发电总量的25%,但随着旧电站的关闭,这一比例逐渐下降。英国政府正在投资[[小型模塊化反應堆|小型模块化反应堆]]和[[高级模块化反应堆]]的研发。
 
2020年,所有可再生能源的总发电量占英国发电量的43%<ref>{{Cite book|chapter=Energy Supply: How Much Will We Have? How Much Will We Need?|title=Our Renewable Future|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5822/978-1-61091-780-3_7|publisher=Island Press/Center for Resource Economics|date=2016|location=Washington, DC|isbn=978-1-61091-831-2|pages=115–130|first=Richard|last=Heinberg|first2=David|last2=Fridley|access-date=2023-05-09|archive-date=2024-10-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006050419/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.5822/978-1-61091-780-3_7|dead-url=no}}</ref>。英国是欧洲[[風能|风能]]效率最高的地区之一,风力发电是该国增长最快的供应;2022年,英国总电力的26.8%来自风力发电<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2023-01-10 |title=Review for "Adding wind power to a wind‐rich grid: Evaluating secondary suitability metrics" |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/we.2809/v2/review2 |doi=10.1002/we.2809/v2/review2 |access-date=2023-05-09 |archive-date=2024-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006050556/https://www.webofscience.com/wos/woscc/full-record/WOS:000934665400001?&SID=USW2EC0C71Hh72Qwgl1Leb6IkoTUQ |dead-url=no }}</ref>。英国拥有世界上最大的海上风电场,位于约克郡海岸<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2021-03-08 |title=Commonwealth Bank of Australia - Branches - Warminster, UK (Military Branch) - Exterior - 14 June 1919 (plate 110) |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.47688/rba_archives_pn-000545 |access-date=2023-05-09 |archive-date=2024-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006050420/https://unreserved.rba.gov.au/nodes/view/46492 |dead-url=no }}</ref>。
 
2020年,英国的煤炭产量为180万吨,10年内下降了91%<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |date=1997-04-16 |title=Theoretical research in nuclear structure and nuclear collective motion. Final report, March 1, 1986--February 28, 1997 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/542049 |access-date=2023-05-09 |archive-date=2024-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006050410/https://www.osti.gov/biblio/542049 |dead-url=no }}</ref>。2020年,该公司已探明可采煤炭储量为2600万吨<ref name=":3" />。英国煤炭管理局表示,英国有通过地下[[煤气化]](UCG)或[[水力压裂]]生产70亿吨至160亿吨煤炭的潜力<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1961 |title=Coal reserves of the United States - a progress report, January 1, 1960 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/b1136 |access-date=2023-05-09 |archive-date=2024-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006050413/https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/b1136 |dead-url=no }}</ref>。根据目前英国的煤炭消费量,这种储量可能可供开采200至400年<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2007-09 |title=Ultrasound Quarterly CME Examination September 2007 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.ruq.0000288155.87997.c1 |journal=Ultrasound Quarterly |volume=23 |issue=3 |doi=10.1097/01.ruq.0000288155.87997.c1 |issn=0894-8771 |access-date=2023-05-09 |archive-date=2024-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006050420/https://journals.lww.com/ultrasound-quarterly/citation/2007/09000/ultrasound_quarterly_cme_examination_september.30.aspx |dead-url=no }}</ref>。化学品对地下水的污染和微震对房屋的破坏引发了环境和社会关注<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2007-12-01 |title=Herbert, James, (8 April 1943–20 March 2013), author |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.u19907 |journal=Who Was Who |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=2023-05-09 |archive-date=2024-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006050917/https://www.ukwhoswho.com/display/10.1093/ww/9780199540891.001.0001/ww-9780199540884-e-19907 |dead-url=no }}</ref>。
 
目前英國正研究向[[冰島]]購買環保的[[地熱能|地熱]]電力。2012年11月23日,据路透社传出的消息表明,英国政府已经决定支持低碳式发电,并计划到2020年将总发电规模提高两倍。2012年11月29日,英国政府公布了最新的能源法案,其主要内容是调整英国国内能源消费结构,发展低碳经济<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://paper.people.com.cn/zgnyb/html/2012-12/03/content_1155006.htm |title=英国出台新《能源法案》 |publisher=人民网 |newspaper=中国能源报 |access-date=2013-08-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203010838/http://paper.people.com.cn/zgnyb/html/2012-12/03/content_1155006.htm |archive-date=2013-12-03 |dead-url=yes }}</ref>。2020年,英国来自可再生能源的发电量水平再次创下新纪录——全国电力的43%来自包括风能、太阳能和沼气在内的可再生资源,高于2019年的37%。 英国政府于2021年8月3日发布了商业、能源和工业战略部(BEIS)编制的2020年英国能源统计摘要(DUKES)。2021年能源生产和消耗总量数据证实了化石燃料生产量的猛降及可再生能源占比的增长。由于防疫限制措施,包括运输用石油燃料在内的总体能源需求下降到上世纪50年代的水平,总消耗量同比下降了13%,英国能源业快速进行了低碳化和可持续化的转型<ref>{{Cite web|last=gmeekins|title=英国2020年发电量中可再生能源占比高达43%|url=https://www.pv-magazine-china.com/2021/08/03/%E8%8B%B1%E5%9B%BD2020%E5%B9%B4%E5%8F%91%E7%94%B5%E9%87%8F%E4%B8%AD%E5%8F%AF%E5%86%8D%E7%94%9F%E8%83%BD%E6%BA%90%E5%8D%A0%E6%AF%94%E9%AB%98%E8%BE%BE43/|access-date=2023-05-09|website=pv magazine China|language=zh-CN|archive-date=2023-05-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230516140324/https://www.pv-magazine-china.com/2021/08/03/%E8%8B%B1%E5%9B%BD2020%E5%B9%B4%E5%8F%91%E7%94%B5%E9%87%8F%E4%B8%AD%E5%8F%AF%E5%86%8D%E7%94%9F%E8%83%BD%E6%BA%90%E5%8D%A0%E6%AF%94%E9%AB%98%E8%BE%BE43/|dead-url=no}}</ref>。
第789行 ⟶ 第798行:
==== 农业 ====
[[File:Claas Tucano 430.jpg|thumb|苏格兰的一辆[[联合收割机]]]]
17世纪中叶,英国进行[[英国农业革命|第二次农业革命]],农业生产力出现空前增长,人口也由此从1700年的550万变为1801年的900万,为英国工业革命打下了深厚基础。19世纪,随着人口激增为原来的三倍,超过3200万,粮食国内生产逐渐被进口所取代<ref>{{Cite book|edition=3. ed., 5. impression|title=An illustrated history of modern Britain: 1783 - 1980|publisher=Longman|date=1991|location=Harlow, Essex|isbn=978-0-582-33130-3|first=Denis|last=Richards|first2=J. W.|last2=Hunt}}</ref>。19世纪70年代,国内生产的粮食能够供应当时全国人口的79%,但到第一次世界大战时,英国生产的粮食只能养活36%的人口。1913年[[谷物]]播种面积比1870年减少25%;1931年谷物播种面积减为196.3万公顷,比1918年下降41.7%、产量下降20.6%<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|title=英国农业概况|url=http://www.agri.cn/V20/ZX/sjny/201312/t20131225_3724044.htm|access-date=2023-05-17|website=www.agri.cn|archive-date=2021-12-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220072436/http://www.agri.cn/V20/ZX/sjny/201312/t20131225_3724044.htm|dead-url=no}}</ref>。在第二次世界大战期间,由于德国潜艇击毁英国远洋商船,粮食进口运输受阻,使国内粮食供应发生困难。英国政府不得不实行食品配给制,转而加强对农业的干预,采取重视农业的许多措施,如:奖励垦荒、对开垦荒地的农户发给奖金;扩大耕地面积;提高农业机械化水平;大幅度提高农产品价格;各地区普遍建立农业生产管理委员会,对农业生产进行监督。战后,英国花了近15年的时间,扭转了农业衰退的局面,逐步实现了农业现代化。目前英国的农业劳动生产率、单位面积产量都有了很高的水平,其主要包括畜牧、粮食、园艺、渔业,可满足国内食品需求总量的近2/3。英国是人口高度[[城市化]]的国家,农业劳动力数量少,发展农场主要依靠广泛采用现代技术、现代科学和现代管理,着重提高劳动生产率,采取资金密集型的发展形式。英国的农业生产不同于美国,属于人多地少的类型,因此,英国较为重视农业土地生产率和单位面积产量的提高,[[小麦]]、[[大麦]]、[[燕麦]]和[[马铃薯]]的单产都有大幅度的增长。1992年,英国谷物平均单产达6940公斤/公顷,2002年达到7006公斤/公顷,高于同期欧洲和美国的单产水平。从农业投入看,英国的种植业(包括大田作物和园艺)仅占农业总产出的39.9%,而畜牧业则占59.8%<ref name=":4" />。农业用地占国土面积的77%,其中多为草场和牧场,仅1/4用于耕种,[[畜牧业]]明显地超过[[种植业]]<ref>{{Cite book|chapter=PDF und Flash kombiniert|title=PDF@Flash|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-03599-9_3|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|date=2010|location=Berlin, Heidelberg|isbn=978-3-642-03598-2|pages=17–32|access-date=2023-05-17|archive-date=2024-10-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006050914/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-03599-9_3|dead-url=no}}</ref>。农业人口人均拥有土地70公顷,是欧盟平均水平的4倍。
 
英国四面环海,海岸线绵长,且位于世界第二大渔场——[[东北大西洋渔场]]的中央。因此其渔业资源极为丰富,是欧洲重要的捕捞渔业国家之一。据[[联合国粮食及农业组织|联合国粮食与农业组织]]资料,英国海洋渔业资源在20世纪50年代及高度开发,直至70年代产量长期维持在100~120万吨之间,80年代后产量有所下降,至2010年时产量约为60万吨<ref>{{Cite web|title=英国渔业 - 《中国大百科全书》第三版网络版|url=https://www.zgbk.com/ecph/words?SiteID=1&ID=123003&SubID=72113|access-date=2023-05-17|website=www.zgbk.com|archive-date=2023-05-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230517214353/https://www.zgbk.com/ecph/words?SiteID=1&ID=123003&SubID=72113|dead-url=no}}</ref>,占欧盟的20%,满足国内2/3的需求<ref name="agriculture2009">{{cite web|url=http://www.defra.gov.uk/evidence/statistics/foodfarm/general/auk/latest/documents/AUK-2009.pdf|publisher=[[Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs|DEFRA]]|title=Agriculture in the United Kingdom, 2009|access-date=2010-06-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100821091845/http://www.defra.gov.uk/evidence/statistics/foodfarm/general/auk/latest/documents/AUK-2009.pdf|archive-date=2010-08-21|dead-url=yes}}</ref>。
第797行 ⟶ 第806行:
英格蘭和蘇格蘭是17世紀以來[[科學革命]]的主要中心<ref>Gascoin, J. "A reappraisal of the role of the universities in the Scientific Revolution", in Lindberg, David C. and Westman, Robert S., eds (1990), ''Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution''. Cambridge University Press. p. 248. {{ISBN|0-521-34804-8}}.</ref>。英國引领了18世紀的[[第一次工業革命|工业革命]],並不断培養出重要的科學家和工程師<ref>Reynolds, E.E.; Brasher, N.H. (1966). ''Britain in the Twentieth Century, 1900–1964''. Cambridge University Press. p. 336. {{oclc|474197910}}</ref>。17和18世紀的主要理論家包括[[艾萨克·牛顿]],他的運動定律和引力定律被視為現代物理学的基石和[[亨利·卡文迪什|亨利·卡文迪许]],他发现的[[氢]]是化学上最重要的元素。19世紀的[[查尔斯·达尔文|查爾斯·達爾文]],他提出的[[進化論]]是現代生物學發展的基礎。[[詹姆斯·克拉克·麦克斯韦]]提出了[[電磁場的動力學理論]]對20世紀初电磁学的发展進展影響最為巨大;他的科學工作為[[狹義相對論]]和[[量子力學]]打下理論基礎<ref>{{cite web | title = Encyclopædia Britannica: Science & Technology : James Clerk Maxwell | url = http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/370621/James-Clerk-Maxwell | accessdate = 2010-01-24 | archive-date = 2009-08-31 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090831000443/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/370621/James-Clerk-Maxwell | dead-url = no }}</ref><ref name=bbc1999>{{cite web |title=Einstein the greatest |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/541840.stm |publisher=BBC News |date=1999-11-29 |accessdate=2012-07-28 |archive-date=2017-08-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170812011359/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/541840.stm |dead-url=no }}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|title=Scientists and Their Discoveries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BVBvehqrAPQC&hl=zh-CN|publisher=Evans Brothers|date=2006|isbn=978-0-237-53195-9|language=en|first=Christine|last=Hatt|access-date=2023-06-19|archive-date=2023-06-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230619214801/https://books.google.com/books?id=BVBvehqrAPQC&hl=zh-CN|dead-url=no}}</ref>。剑桥大学的[[卡文迪许实验室]]诞生了许多诺贝尔奖获得者,如1897年,研究[[陰極射線|阴极射线]]时发现[[电子]]的[[约瑟夫·汤姆孙]];1935年,发现[[中子]]的[[詹姆斯·查德威克]];1953年,发现[[脱氧核糖核酸]](DNA)双螺旋结构的[[詹姆斯·杜威·沃森|詹姆斯·沃森]]与[[弗朗西斯·克里克|佛朗西斯·克里克]],为现代物理学和生理学发展做出了巨大贡献。最近,[[史蒂芬霍金|史蒂芬·霍金]]在宇宙学、量子引力和黑洞研究领域也提出了重要理论<ref name=":5" />。
 
英国人的其他主要工程项目和应用包括由[[理查·特里維西克|理查·特里维西克]]和[[安德鲁·威威恩]]开发的[[蒸汽機車|蒸汽机车]]<ref>{{Cite book|title=Remarkable engineers: from Riquet to Shannon|url=https://archive.org/details/remarkableengine0000jame|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=2010|location=Cambridge [und 9 weitere]|isbn=978-0-521-73165-2|first=Ioan M.|last=James}}</ref>;[[麥可·法拉第|迈克·法拉第]]的电动机;[[查尔斯·巴贝奇]]设计的第一台计算机<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1948-12-22 |title=General principles of the design of all-purpose computing machines |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1948.0129 |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences |volume=195 |issue=1042 |doi=10.1098/rspa.1948.0129 |issn=0080-4630 |access-date=2023-06-06 |archive-date=2024-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006051043/https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspa.1948.0129 |dead-url=no }}</ref>;[[愛達·勒芙蕾絲|埃达·洛夫莱斯]]的第一个程序代码<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ma |first=Rui |last2=Liu |first2=Junxian |date=2023-03-13 |title=The First Off-Grid Solar Power Plant in Iraq |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/214077-ms |journal=Day 1 Mon, March 13, 2023 |publisher=SPE |doi=10.2118/214077-ms}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ibadat |first=Samrah |date=2023-03-13 |title=Leadership Development for High Potential Employees |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/213999-ms |journal=Day 1 Mon, March 13, 2023 |publisher=SPE |doi=10.2118/213999-ms}}</ref>, [[威廉·庫克]]和[[查爾斯·惠斯通|查尔斯·惠更斯]]的第一个商业电报<ref>{{Cite journal |last=MARLAND |first=E |date=1966-01 |title=Cooke and Wheatstone and the invention of the electric telegraph By Geoffrey Hubbard. Pp. ix + 158. Routledge and Kegan Paul, London. 1965. 21s. net |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0160-9327(66)90066-4 |journal=Endeavour |volume=25 |issue=94 |doi=10.1016/0160-9327(66)90066-4 |issn=0160-9327 |access-date=2023-06-06 |archive-date=2024-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006050926/https://shop.elsevier.com/ |dead-url=no }}</ref>, [[约瑟夫·斯万]]的白炽灯泡<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Story of Light|last=Ben|first=Bova|publisher=Sourcebooks|year=2002|isbn=978-1-402200-09-0|location=Naperville|pages=238}}</ref>;和由[[亚历山大·格拉汉姆·贝尔|亚历山大·贝尔]]申请专利的第一个实用电话<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1947-03 |title=Alexander Graham Bell (1847–1922) |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/159297a0 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=159 |issue=4035 |doi=10.1038/159297a0 |issn=0028-0836 |access-date=2023-06-06 |archive-date=2023-06-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230606201328/https://www.nature.com/articles/159297a0 |dead-url=no }}</ref>。在20世纪,[[约翰·罗杰·贝尔德]]和其他人发明了世界上第一个运作的[[电视系统]]<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2018-02-06 |title=Baird, John Logie (1888–1946) |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/odnb/9780192683120.013.30540 |journal=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=2023-06-06 |archive-date=2024-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006051005/https://www.oxforddnb.com/display/10.1093/odnb/9780192683120.001.0001/odnb-9780192683120-e-30540 |dead-url=no }}</ref>;[[弗兰克·惠特尔]]发明的[[喷气发动机]];[[艾伦·图灵]]提出的现代计算机的理论基础;[[费兰蒂马克]]——第一台[[商业通用数字计算机]];[[杰弗里·达默]]提出的[[集成电路]]概念<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nunez Davila |first=Andres Felipe |date=2023-03-13 |title=Innovative Performance Models for Integrated Projects in Offshore Deepwater Operations |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/214064-ms |journal=Day 1 Mon, March 13, 2023 |publisher=SPE |doi=10.2118/214064-ms}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |date=2007-12-01 |title=Easton, Mark Richard Erskine, (born 12 March 1959), Home Editor, BBC News, since 2004 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.u45304 |journal=Who's Who |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=2023-06-06 |archive-date=2020-04-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200427165906/http://www.ukwhoswho.com/view/10.1093/ww/9780199540884.001.0001/ww-9780199540884-e-45304 |dead-url=no }}</ref>;[[万维网联盟|W3C]]领导者[[蒂姆·伯纳斯-李]]提出的[[万维网]]<ref>{{Cite book|title=Ethnic groups of Europe: an encyclopedia|series=Ethnic groups of the world|publisher=ABC-CLIO|date=2011|location=Santa Barbara, Calf|isbn=978-1-59884-302-6|first=Jeffrey|last=Cole}}</ref>,以及[[乔纳森·艾维|乔纳森·埃维]]提出的[[蘋果公司|苹果公司]]产品概念。
 
直至今日,科學研究與開發在英國仍有重要地位,許多大學都建立了科學園區,以促進生產和與工業界的合作<ref>Castells, M.; Hall, P.; Hall, P.G. (2004). ''Technopoles of the World: the Making of Twenty-First-Century Industrial Complexes''. London: Routledge. pp. 98–100. {{ISBN|0-415-10015-1}}.</ref>。2022年,英国发表了世界6.3%的科学研究论文,并拥有10.5%的科学引用份额,位居世界第三(两者均如此)。英国的领域加权引文影响力排名世界第一<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1078073/international-comparison-uk-research-base-2022-accompanying-note.pdf |title=International comparison of the UK research base, 2022 |access-date=2023-03-11 |archive-date=2023-03-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305235208/https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1078073/international-comparison-uk-research-base-2022-accompanying-note.pdf}},在英國發行的知名科學期刊包括《[[皇家学会]]》《[[自然 (期刊)|自然]]》、《[[英國醫學期刊]]》和《[[柳葉刀 (雜誌)|柳葉刀]]》{{Cite journal |last=McCook, Alison |title=Is peer review broken? |journal=The Scientist |volume=20 |issue=2 |page=26 |year=2006 |url=http://gaia.pge.utexas.edu/Good/Materials/scientist_02_28_2006.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110816230933/http://gaia.pge.utexas.edu/Good/Materials/scientist_02_28_2006.htm |archive-date=2011-08-16 |access-date=2011-06-22 |dead-url=yes }}</ref>。伦敦在[[欧洲数字社会创新指数]]中总体排名第一,该指数根据6个主题的32个标准对城市进行排名,伦敦在技术主题方面也排名第一<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.nesta.org.uk/data-visualisation-and-interactive/european-digital-social-innovation-index/ |title=The European Digital Social Innovation Index |access-date=2023-03-11 |archive-date=2023-03-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311112253/https://www.nesta.org.uk/data-visualisation-and-interactive/european-digital-social-innovation-index/}}到2022年,英国继续保持欧洲科技第一的位置,总市值达到1万亿美元,位居世界第三。剑桥因培养成功的技术创始人而被评为世界第一大学。同样在2022年,伦敦是美国以外的顶级科技生态系统,英国对快速发展的科技公司的投资是任何其他欧洲国家的两倍多。{{Cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-tech-sector-retains-1-spot-in-europe-and-3-in-world-as-sector-resilience-brings-continued-growth|access-date=2023-03-24|title=UK tech sector retains #1 spot in Europe and #3 in world as sector resilience brings continued growth|archive-date=2023-03-24 |publisher=UK Government|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324084604/https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-tech-sector-retains-1-spot-in-europe-and-3-in-world-as-sector-resilience-brings-continued-growth}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.startupblink.com |title=Best Cities for Startups |access-date=2023-03-11 |archive-date=2023-03-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311130419/https://www.startupblink.com/ }} (last checked 11 March 2023)</ref> 。英国在2020年、2021年和2022年[[全球創新指數|全球创新指数]]中排名第四,该指数基于约80项指标,包括政治环境、教育、基础设施和知识创造的衡量标准。在相关报告中发现,剑桥是世界上“科技产业”最密集的集群。
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公路在英国是最受欢迎的交通方式,承载了90%以上的机动客运和65%的国内货运<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Bayliss |first=D. |last2=Banks |first2=N. |last3=Glaister |first3=S. |date=2008-08 |title=A pricing and investment strategy for national roads |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/tran.2008.161.3.103 |journal=Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Transport |volume=161 |issue=3 |doi=10.1680/tran.2008.161.3.103 |issn=0965-092X}}</ref>。主要的高速公路和主干道中许多是[[雙車道快速道路|双车道]],形成了连接所有城市和主要城镇的干线网络。它们承载着全国约三分之一的交通流量,占其土地面积的约0.16%<ref name=":6" />。
 
[[收費道路|收费公路]]在英国很少见,但有许多收费桥梁。 道路交通拥堵已被确定为英国未来繁荣的一个关键阻碍,政府正在研究和制定政策和措施以减少拥堵<ref>{{Cite book|chapter=Tackling Traffic Congestion|title=Transport Economics|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-137-06823-1_16|publisher=Macmillan Education UK|date=2010|location=London|isbn=978-0-230-51688-5|pages=249–276|first=Graham|last=Mallard|first2=Stephen|last2=Glaister}}</ref>。2003年,英国第一条收费高速公路“M6 Toll”在[[西米德兰兹地区]]开通,以缓解M6高速公路的拥堵<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2007-12-01 |title=Andrews, John Hayward, (9 Nov. 1919–3 Jan. 2006), Director, Logan Motorway Group (formerly Logan Toll Motorway Group), 1988–95 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.u5527 |journal=Who Was Who |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=2023-06-11 |archive-date=2024-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006051455/https://www.ukwhoswho.com/display/10.1093/ww/9780199540891.001.0001/ww-9780199540884-e-5527 |dead-url=no }}</ref>。[[罗德·爱丁顿]] (Rod Eddington) 在他 2006 年的报告《交通运输在维持英国生产力和竞争力方面的作用》(Transport's role in sustaining the UK's productivity and competitiveness)中建议,应通过“复杂的政策组合”解决交通拥堵问题,包括针对交通拥堵的道路收费和通过基础设施提高交通网络的容量和性能,投资和更好地利用现有交通网<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2007-12-01 |title=Eddington, Sir Roderick Ian, (Sir Rod), (born 2 Jan. 1950), non-executive Chairman: Australia and New Zealand, JPMorgan, since 2006; Lion, since 2012; Chairman, Advisory Council, Infrastructure Australia, 2008–14 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.36920 |journal=Who's Who |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=2023-06-11 |archive-date=2024-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006051601/https://www.ukwhoswho.com/display/10.1093/ww/9780199540884.001.0001/ww-9780199540884-e-36920 |dead-url=no }}</ref>。控制拥堵的收费系统确实在伦敦<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2007-12-01 |title=Brown, Benjamin Robert, (born 26 May 1960), Presenter, BBC News 24, since 2006 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.8962 |journal=Who's Who |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=2023-06-11 |archive-date=2021-02-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210217190818/https://www.ukwhoswho.com/view/10.1093/ww/9780199540884.001.0001/ww-9780199540884-e-8962 |dead-url=no }}</ref>和[[达勒姆]]<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1987-03 |title=Transcript of the news as broadcast by BBC on 15 April |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03064228708534218 |journal=Index on Censorship |volume=16 |issue=3 |doi=10.1080/03064228708534218 |issn=0306-4220 |access-date=2023-06-11 |archive-date=2020-03-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200331191301/http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1080/03064228708534218 |dead-url=no }}</ref>等城市以及[[达特福德跨河道路]](以交通拥塞闻名)运行。2005年,政府公布了英国范围内道路收费方案的提案,这旨在中和其他汽车税减少所造成的财政损失<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2007-05 |title=Pay as you go plan |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/bdj.2007.401 |journal=British Dental Journal |volume=202 |issue=9 |doi=10.1038/bdj.2007.401 |issn=0007-0610 |access-date=2023-06-11 |archive-date=2024-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006051508/https://www.nature.com/articles/bdj.2007.401 |dead-url=no }}</ref>。这些计划极具争议性,180 万人签署了反对请愿书<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2007-12-01 |title=Quinn, Carolyn, (born 22 July 1961), Presenter: PM programme, BBC Radio 4, since 2000; Westminster Hour, BBC Radio 4, since 2007 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.45073 |journal=Who's Who |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=2023-06-11 |archive-date=2024-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006051457/https://www.ukwhoswho.com/display/10.1093/ww/9780199540884.001.0001/ww-9780199540884-e-45073 |dead-url=no }}</ref>。
 
英国汽车[[道路通行方向|靠左行驶]]<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2023-05-23 |title=Transport in the United Kingdom |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transport_in_the_United_Kingdom&oldid=1156532731 |journal=Wikipedia |language=en |access-date=2023-06-11 |archive-date=2024-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006051608/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transport_in_the_United_Kingdom&oldid=1156532731 |dead-url=no }}</ref>,在高速公路和双车道上,通常的最高速度限制为每小时112公里(70英里/小时)<ref>{{Cite book|chapter=VEHICLE CONTROL ISSUES IN INTELLIGENT VEHICLE HIGHWAY SYSTEMS|title=Advances in Automotive Control 1995|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-042589-4.50032-7|publisher=Elsevier|date=1995|pages=195–202|first=J.K.|last=Hedrick|access-date=2023-06-11|archive-date=2024-10-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006051503/https://www.sciencedirect.com/unsupported_browser|dead-url=no}}</ref>。2015年4月29日,克莱恩斯欧洲环保协会(ClientEarth)的环境律师提起环保诉讼<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1987-03 |title=Transcript: BBC: 17 April |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03064228708534220 |journal=Index on Censorship |volume=16 |issue=3 |doi=10.1080/03064228708534220 |issn=0306-4220 |access-date=2023-06-11 |archive-date=2019-12-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191218095258/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1080/03064228708534220 |dead-url=no }}</ref>,[[英国最高法院]]裁定政府必须立即采取行动减少空气污染<ref>{{Cite web|title=UK Supreme Court orders Government to take “immediate action” on air pollution|url=https://www.clientearth.org/latest/latest-updates/news/uk-supreme-court-orders-government-to-take-immediate-action-on-air-pollution/|access-date=2023-06-11|website=www.clientearth.org|language=en-US|archive-date=2023-06-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230611200017/https://www.clientearth.org/latest/latest-updates/news/uk-supreme-court-orders-government-to-take-immediate-action-on-air-pollution/|dead-url=no}}</ref>。
 
=== 铁路 ===
第826行 ⟶ 第835行:
由于英国是一个岛国,水运尤其是海运是英国交通的支柱。[[泰晤士河]]运输量居世界河流前十位<ref>{{cite web|url=http://list.english-heritage.org.uk/mapsearch.aspx|title=Ordnance Survey map|publisher=[[English Heritage]]|access-date=2018-12-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120424060625/http://list.english-heritage.org.uk/mapsearch.aspx|archive-date=2012-04-24|dead-url=yes}}</ref>。英国亦通过水运连接北爱尔兰及临近的爱尔兰共和国、法国等国。分隔英国和欧洲大陆的[[英吉利海峡]]是世界上最繁忙的海上通道。
 
海运承担了95%的对外贸易运输。英国大中港口众多,其中约100个为重要商业港口,吞吐量1,000万吨以上的港口超过十个<ref name="port01">{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/208586/port0101.xls |title=Statistical data set PORT01 – UK ports and traffic|publisher=Department for Transport|access-date=2021-01-24|archive-date=2024-10-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006051459/https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/208586/port0101.xls|dead-url=no}}</ref>。英国与[[新加坡]]和[[日本]]被公认为受海运影响最大的三个国家{{citation needed}}。通过发展航运业务和海事服务,英国成为全球航运定价中心和管理中心。伦敦是[[国际海事组织]]和国际海运联合会总部所在地<ref name="about">{{cite web|url=http://www.imo.org/en/About/Pages/Default.aspx|title=Introduction to IMO|publisher=International Maritime Organization|access-date=2015-08-28|archive-date=2015-10-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151025184959/http://www.imo.org/en/About/Pages/Default.aspx|dead-url=no}}</ref>。
 
=== 航空 ===
第898行 ⟶ 第907行:
根据2011年人口普查,英国人口達6513万<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171778_292378.pdf |title=2011 Census: Population Estimates for the United Kingdom |publisher=Office for National Statistics |date=2011-03-27 |access-date=2012-12-18 |archive-date=2016-01-05 |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20160105160709/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171778_292378.pdf |dead-url=no }}</ref>,其中三分之一居住在[[英格兰东南|英格兰东南部]]([[首都]][[伦敦]]就有860万)。在2016年,以地區來分,其中[[英格兰]]人占83.9%;[[苏格兰]]人占8.4%;其他还有[[威尔斯]]人占4.8%、[[北爱尔兰]]人占2.9%<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/guide-method/compendiums/compendium-of-uk-statistics/population-and-migration/index.html |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20160105160709/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/guide-method/compendiums/compendium-of-uk-statistics/population-and-migration/index.html |url-status=yes |archive-date=2016-01-05 |title=Main comparisons: Population and Migration |publisher=Office for National Statistics |access-date=2016-06-23 }}</ref>。
 
2017年,英国的平均[[总和生育率|总生育率]] (TFR) 为1.74<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2013-04-30 |title=Statistical tables |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.18356/a8cc50f2-en |journal=Statistical Papers - United Nations (Ser. A), Population and Vital Statistics Report |doi=10.18356/a8cc50f2-en |issn=2412-138X |access-date=2023-06-09 |archive-date=2024-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006051621/https://www.un-ilibrary.org/content/books/9789210559881 |dead-url=no }}</ref>。虽然不断上升的[[出生率]]促进了人口增长,但仍大大低于1964年每名妇女生育 2.95 个孩子的[[嬰兒潮|婴儿潮]]峰值<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Boseley |first=S. |date=2008-09-18 |title=Matthias Rath drops libel action against Guardian |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.a1710 |journal=BMJ |volume=337 |issue=sep18 1 |doi=10.1136/bmj.a1710 |issn=0959-8138 |access-date=2023-06-09 |archive-date=2024-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006052010/https://www.bmj.com/content/337/bmj.a1710 |dead-url=no }}</ref>或1815年每名妇女生育6.02个孩子的高峰<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schoumaker |first=Bruno |date=2019-08-05 |title=Male Fertility Around the World and Over Time: How Different is it from Female Fertility? |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/padr.12273 |journal=Population and Development Review |volume=45 |issue=3 |doi=10.1111/padr.12273 |issn=0098-7921 |access-date=2023-06-09 |archive-date=2024-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006052154/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/padr.12273 |dead-url=no }}</ref>,同时低于人口替代率(在无外来移民的情况下保持人口不变所需的最低总和生育率)的2.1,但高于2001年创纪录的低点1.63<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Swerdlow |first=A. J. |date=2014-09-29 |title=Data Quality in Vital and Health Statistics |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118445112.stat06088 |journal=Wiley StatsRef: Statistics Reference Online |doi=10.1002/9781118445112.stat06088 |access-date=2023-06-09 |archive-date=2024-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006051959/http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118445112.stat06088 |dead-url=no }}</ref>。2011年,英国47.3%的新生儿都是由未婚女性生育的<ref>{{Cite book|chapter=Maps, tables and graphs|title=Deporting Black Britons|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.7765/9781526155733.00004|publisher=Manchester University Press|date=2020-09-01|access-date=2023-06-09|archive-date=2024-10-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006052015/https://www.manchesterhive.com/display/9781526155733/9781526155733.00004.xml|dead-url=no}}</ref>。[[英国国家统计署|国家统计局]]2015年发布的公告显示,在16岁及以上的英国人口中,有1.7%的人认为自己是[[男同性戀|男同性恋]]、[[女同性戀|女同性恋]]或[[双性恋]](2.0%的男性和1.5%的女性);4.5%的受访者回答“其他”、“我不知道”或没有回答。据2001年至2008年的研究估计,英国[[性別重置手術|变性人]]人数在65,000至300,000之间<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Davenport |first=R. W. |date=1946 |title=Report of the Research Committee on Runoff, 1945–46 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/tr027i006p00876 |journal=Transactions, American Geophysical Union |volume=27 |issue=6 |doi=10.1029/tr027i006p00876 |issn=0002-8606 |access-date=2023-06-09 |archive-date=2024-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006052120/http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/tr027i006p00876 |dead-url=no }}</ref>。
 
截止至2019年,英国的人口有66,959,016人,每年以小于百分之1的增长率在增长<ref>{{Cite web |title=Population by Country (2019) - Worldometers |url=http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/population-by-country/ |accessdate=2019-03-22 |work=www.worldometers.info |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160204164248/http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/population-by-country/ |archive-date=2016-02-04 |dead-url=no }}</ref>。[[英国国家统计署]]基於2016年的《國家人口預測》指出,如果近期趨勢繼續下去,英國的人口將在2016年中至2026年中增加360萬。這表示年平均增長率為0.5%。同期,英格蘭的人口預計將增長5.9%。威爾士為3.1%,蘇格蘭和北愛爾蘭分別為3.2%和4.2%<ref name="npp2012">[https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationprojections/bulletins/nationalpopulationprojections/2016basedstatisticalbulletin National Population Projections, 2016-based] {{Wayback|url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationprojections/bulletins/nationalpopulationprojections/2016basedstatisticalbulletin |date=20210511061651 }}, retrieved 29 October 2017</ref>。{{link-en|美国的人口资料局|Population Reference Bureau}}則預測,到2050年的时候,英国的人口将达7,700万。超过德国和法国,成为俄罗斯以外整个欧洲人口最多的国家<ref>{{cite news |title=英国人口可望居欧洲首位 |url=https://www.bbc.com/ukchina/simp/uk_life/2010/08/100802_life_uk_population |accessdate=2021-01-26 |agency=[[BBC]]中文網 |date=2010-07-30 |archive-date=2021-05-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511045853/https://www.bbc.com/ukchina/simp/uk_life/2010/08/100802_life_uk_population |dead-url=no }}</ref>。
第905行 ⟶ 第914行:
{{main|英语|英式英語}}
 
英國名義上沒有官方語言,實際上[[英語]]為主要語言<ref name="direct.gov.uk">{{cite web |url=http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/LivingintheUK/DG_10012519 |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20121015000000/http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/LivingintheUK/DG_10012519 |archive-date=2012-10-15 |title=English language&nbsp;– Government, citizens and rights |website=[[Directgov]] |access-date=2011-08-23 |dead-url=no }}</ref><ref name="thecommonwealth.org">{{cite web |url=http://www.thecommonwealth.org/YearbookHomeInternal/139560/ |title=Commonwealth Secretariat&nbsp;– UK |publisher=Commonwealth Secretariat |access-date=2011-08-23 |archive-date=2018-12-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225155233/http://www.thecommonwealth.org/YearbookHomeInternal/139560/%0A |dead-url=no }}</ref>。據估計,95%的英國居民以是英语的单语使用者<ref name="BBC languages">{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/languages/european_languages/countries/uk.shtml |title=Languages across Europe: United Kingdom |publisher=BBC |access-date=2013-02-04 |archive-date=2020-11-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201102173300/http://www.bbc.co.uk/languages/european_languages/countries/uk.shtml |dead-url=no }}</ref>,还有5.5%的新移民会讲自己的民族语言,如[[華語]]、[[粤语]]、[[孟加拉语]]、[[印地语]]、[[旁遮普语]]和[[乌尔都语]]<ref>Carl Skutsch (2013). '' Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities''. pp.1261. Routledge. Retrieved on 3 December 2020.</ref>。英国是[[印度]]以外[[印地语]]使用者最多的地方。根据2011年的人口普查,[[波兰语]]已成为英格兰的第二大语言,有546,000人使用<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Poyneer |first=L |date=2012-12-07 |title=Science and Technology Review January/February 2013 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/1062209 |access-date=2023-06-09 |archive-date=2024-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006052005/https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1062209/ |dead-url=no }}</ref>。2019 年,大约一百万人中仅有不到一人不会或几乎不会说英语<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2019-12-01 |title=Jones, Ruth Lorraine, (born 23 April 1962), MP (Lab) Newport West, since April 2019 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.u292642 |journal=Who's Who |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=2023-06-09 |archive-date=2024-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006052037/https://www.ukwhoswho.com/display/10.1093/ww/9780199540884.001.0001/ww-9780199540884-e-292642 |dead-url=no }}</ref>。
 
英国使用三种土著[[凯尔特语族|凯尔特语]]:[[威尔士语]]、[[愛爾蘭語|爱尔兰语]]和[[苏格兰盖尔语]]。[[康瓦爾語|康沃尔语]]作为第一语言(即母语)已在18世纪后期绝迹,目前正在努力复兴,并且有一小群人将其作为第二语言使用<ref>{{Cite book|edition=2. ed., reprinted|title=Language and linguistics: the key concepts|series=Routledge key guides|publisher=Routledge|date=2008|location=Abingdon|isbn=978-0-415-41358-9|first=Robert L.|last=Trask|first2=Peter|last2=Stockwell}}</ref>。根据2021年的人口普查,威尔士三岁及以上的威尔士语人口为538,300人(占17.8%)<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |date=2007-12-01 |title=Darling, Maj.-Gen. Douglas Lyall, (3 Oct. 1914–28 Dec. 1978), GOC 53 (Welsh) Division (TA)/Wales District, December 1963–May 1968, retired |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.u153713 |journal=Who Was Who |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=2023-06-09 |archive-date=2024-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006052142/https://www.ukwhoswho.com/display/10.1093/ww/9780199540891.001.0001/ww-9780199540884-e-153713 |dead-url=no }}</ref>。此外,据估计约有 200,000 名讲威尔士语的人居住在英格兰<ref name=":7" />。在北爱尔兰2011年的人口普查中,有167,487 人(10.4%)表示他们有“一些爱尔兰语知识”(参见北爱尔兰的爱尔兰语),不过他们几乎全是民族主义者(主要是天主教徒)。苏格兰有超过92,000人(不到总人口的2%)会讲一点盖尔语,其中 72% 居住在[[外赫布里底群岛]]<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2007-12-01 |title=Waters, Alfred Charles, (1848–18 April 1912), Chief Clerk, General Register Office |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.u192025 |journal=Who Was Who |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=2023-06-09 |archive-date=2024-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006052510/https://www.ukwhoswho.com/display/10.1093/ww/9780199540891.001.0001/ww-9780199540884-e-192025 |dead-url=no }}</ref>。现在英国学习威尔士语或苏格兰盖尔语的儿童人数正在增加<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Goodwin |first=Peter |date=1983 |title=The new technology: where is it taking us?—asks BBC series |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1049/esn.1983.0002 |journal=Electronic Systems News |volume=1983 |issue=1 |doi=10.1049/esn.1983.0002 |issn=0265-0096 |access-date=2023-06-09 |archive-date=2024-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006052647/https://digital-library.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/esn.1983.0002 |dead-url=no }}</ref>。在移民后裔人群中,一些苏格兰盖尔语仍在加拿大使用(主要是[[新斯科舍省]]和[[布雷顿角岛]])<ref>{{Cite book|title=Minority languages and group identity: cases and categories|series=Impact|publisher=J. Benjamins|date=2010|location=Amsterdam|isbn=978-90-272-1866-7|first=John Robert|last=Edwards}}</ref>,[[阿根廷]][[巴塔哥尼亞|巴塔哥尼亚]]也有一定的威尔士语人群<ref>{{Cite book|title=Celtic culture: a historical encyclopedia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|date=2006|location=Santa Barbara, Calif.|isbn=978-1-85109-440-0|editor-first=John T.|editor-last=Koch}}</ref>。[[苏格兰语]]则是一种起源于早期北部中古英语的语言,与其区域变体北爱尔兰的[[阿爾斯特蘇格蘭語|阿尔斯特苏格兰语]]得到的认可有限,没有具体的保护和推广措施。
 
过去由于[[大英帝国]]的扩张,[[英语]]已是最多國家與地區使用的官方語言、是[[世界]]上学习最普遍的[[语言]],地理分布最广的语言。在各領域皆有英語的存在,並产生了许多英语方言,英語是被普遍承认的[[世界语言]],甚至已成為不同語言使用者交流時第一順位使用的語言{{sfn|Crystal|2003a|p=6}}{{sfn|Wardhaugh|2010|p=55}}。
第997行 ⟶ 第1,006行:
=== 哲学思想 ===
[[File:John Locke.jpg|thumb|upright|由[[戈弗雷·内勒]]于1697年创作的[[约翰·洛克]]肖像]]
英国以传统的“[[经验主义|英国经验主义]]”和“苏格兰哲学”(有时被称为“[[苏格兰常识学派]]”)而闻名<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.rrbltd.co.uk/bibliographies/scottish_v5_bibliog.pdf |title=A bibliography of Scottish common sense philosophy: Sources and origins |publisher=Thoemmes Press |year=2000 |editor-last=Fieser, James |location=Bristol |access-date=17 December 2010 |archive-date=9 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409171906/https://www.rrbltd.co.uk/bibliographies/scottish_v5_bibliog.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>,“英国经验主义”是哲学知识的一个分支,认为只有经过实践验证的知识才是有效的<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.rrbltd.co.uk/bibliographies/scottish_v5_bibliog.pdf |title=A bibliography of Scottish common sense philosophy: Sources and origins |publisher=Thoemmes Press |year=2000 |editor-last=Fieser, James |location=Bristol |access-date=2010-12-17 |archive-date=2023-04-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409171906/https://www.rrbltd.co.uk/bibliographies/scottish_v5_bibliog.pdf |dead-url=no }}</ref>。英国经验主义最著名的哲学家有[[约翰·洛克]]、[[乔治·贝克莱]]和[[大卫·休谟]];[[杜格尔德·斯图尔特]]、[[托马斯·里德]]和[[威廉·汉密尔顿 (外交官)|威廉·汉密尔顿]]是苏格兰“常识”学派的主要代表。两位英国人:[[杰里米·边沁]]和[[约翰·斯图尔特·密尔]]也因[[功利主義|功利主义]]伦理理论([[伦理学]]的一个分支)而闻名。这个理论首先由边沁提出,后来由密尔在自己的短篇著作[[效益主義 (書)|《效益主义》]]中使用<ref>{{Cite book |last=Palmer, Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s7y5MJOuN30C&pg=PA66 |title=Moral Problems in Medicine: A Practical Coursebook |publisher=Lutterworth Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-7188-2978-0 |location=Cambridge |page=66 |access-date=2024-04-24 |archive-date=2024-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006052504/https://books.google.com/books?id=s7y5MJOuN30C&pg=PA66#v=onepage&q&f=false |dead-url=no }}; {{Cite book |last=Scarre, Geoffrey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8A4xLnzfqYwC&pg=PA82 |title=Utilitarianism |publisher=Routledge |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-415-12197-2 |location=London |page=82 |access-date=2024-04-24 |archive-date=2024-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006052619/https://books.google.com/books?id=8A4xLnzfqYwC&pg=PA82#v=onepage&q&f=false |dead-url=no }}</ref>。
 
==== 思想家 ====
第1,022行 ⟶ 第1,031行:
{{main|英国音乐}}
[[File:The Beatles members at New York City in 1964.jpg|thumb|left|[[披頭四樂隊|披头士乐队]]是流行音乐史上最受好评及商业上最成功的乐队,唱片销量超过10亿<ref name="Beatles sales">{{cite web|title=1960–1969|url=http://www.emimusic.com/about/history/1960-1969/#|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140425011032/http://www.emimusic.com/about/history/1960-1969/|archive-date=2014-04-25|access-date=2015-03-09|publisher=EMI Group}}</ref><ref name="McCartney">{{Cite magazine|date=1992-06-08|title=Paul At Fifty|magazine=Time|location=New York|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,975715-2,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090206120350/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,975715-2,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=2009-02-06}}</ref><ref name="Guinness">[https://books.google.com/?id=rdU1xtIWJz0C Most Successful Group] ''[[吉尼斯世界纪录|The Guinness Book of Records]]'' 1999, p. 230. Retrieved 19 March 2011.</ref>]]
英国是众多著名音乐家的故乡,这些音乐家都有可观的贡献和影响。英国音乐的传统来自[[基督教音乐]]和不列颠[[民间音乐]],英格兰、苏格兰、威尔士和北爱尔兰有着本土的传统音乐,风格各异。进入工业时代后,兴起如[[英式铜管乐队|铜管乐队]]和{{le|音乐厅|music hall|音乐厅乐团}}这样的新形式,挑战传统民乐的流行地位。现代[[流行音乐]]的诸多潮流都发源自英国,如[[节拍音乐]]、[[强力流行|强力流行]]、[[迷幻音乐]]、[[前卫摇滚]]、[[重金属音乐]]、[[新浪潮音乐]]、[[电子流行]]、[[迴響貝斯]]<ref name="Henderson2">Henderson, Alex (1 August 2003). [https://web.archive.org/web/20101104165122/http://allmusic.com/explore/essay/british-soul-t2160 British Soul]. Allmusic. Retrieved 6 March 2011.</ref><ref>[http://www.allmusic.com/style/dubstep-ma0000004465 AllMusic – Dubstep] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170923151236/http://www.allmusic.com/style/dubstep-ma0000004465|date=2017-09-23}} "Absorbed and transfigured elements of techno, drum'n' bass and dub"</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Local Groove Does Good: The Story Of Trip-Hop's Rise From Bristol|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/therecord/2012/01/31/142607358/local-groove-does-good-the-story-of-trip-hops-rise-from-bristol|newspaper=NPR|date=2012-01-31|last1=Goldman|first1=Vivien|accessdate=2024-04-24|archive-date=2020-08-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809145230/https://www.npr.org/sections/therecord/2012/01/31/142607358/local-groove-does-good-the-story-of-trip-hops-rise-from-bristol|dead-url=no}}</ref>等。
 
在古典音乐方面,按照历史梳理,[[都铎时期]]的音乐归类为[[文艺复兴音乐]],[[托马斯·塔利斯]]、[[约翰·塔弗纳]]、[[威廉·伯德]]、[[奥兰多·吉本斯]]、[[约翰·道兰德]]是这时英格兰著名的音乐家,他们创作出卓越的[[弥撒曲]]、{{le|牧歌 (欧洲)|Madrigal|牧歌}}和[[鲁特琴|鲁特琴曲]]。之后的[[斯图亚特王朝复辟]]时代,[[亨利·珀塞爾]]引领潮流,[[托馬斯·阿恩]]等人追随,他们创作{{le|假面舞会|Masque|假面舞曲}}、颂歌和[[AIR (音乐乐式)|艾尔抒情调]],作为之后英格兰音乐的传统风格而延续。入籍英国的德意志人[[格奥尔格·弗里德里希·亨德尔|亨德尔]]是巴洛克时期卓越的作曲家<ref name="Handel">{{cite web|date=2009-07-20|title=British Citizen by Act of Parliament: George Frideric Handel|url=http://www.parliament.uk/parliamentary_publications_and_archives/parliamentary_archives/handel_and_naturalisation.cfm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100326164147/http://www.parliament.uk/parliamentary_publications_and_archives/parliamentary_archives/handel_and_naturalisation.cfm|archive-date=2010-03-26|access-date=2015-03-09|publisher=UK Parliament}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Andrews|first=John|date=2006-04-14|title=Handel all'inglese|work=Playbill|location=New York|url=http://www.playbillarts.com/features/article/4236.html|access-date=2009-09-11|archive-date=2008-05-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516210558/http://www.playbillarts.com/features/article/4236.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>,他创作的《[[水上音樂]]》《[[皇家煙火]]》和《[[弥赛亚 (亨德尔)|弥赛亚]]》廣為人知<ref>George J. Buelow (2004). "A History of Baroque Music". p. 476. Indiana University Press, 2004</ref>,颂歌《[[牧师扎多克]]》成为英国君主的传统加冕曲。19世纪下半叶,[[爱德华·埃尔加]]可谓最成功的作曲家,涵盖各式风格,成就和当时的欧陆名家匹敌;[[阿瑟·萨利文]]和[[威廉·S·吉尔伯特]]合作创作出许多经久不衰的[[萨伏依歌剧]]作品。进入20世纪,有[[古斯塔夫·霍尔斯特]]和[[雷夫·佛漢·威廉斯]]等英国作曲家自民间音乐汲取灵感,引领{{le|英国民歌复兴|British folk revival}};[[本杰明·布里顿|布里顿男爵]]的歌剧作品成就斐然,是英国现代歌剧的先驱。在战后的当代,著名的英国作曲家有[[彼得·马克斯韦尔·戴维斯]],他创作出有[[序列主义|序列音乐]]、东方音乐和文艺复兴音乐色彩的独特作品;[[哈里森·伯特威斯尔]],他的音乐具有神话色彩,富于诗情;[[约翰·塔文纳]],以宗教精神深厚的合唱作品著称<ref>{{Cite Grove|title=Great Britain|first1=Nicholas|last1=Iemperley|date = 2002| url =https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.O006236}}</ref><ref>{{Cite Grove|title=England (i)|date = 2001| url = https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.40044|first1=Stephen|last1= Banfield|first2= Ian|last2= Russell}}</ref><ref>{{Cite Grove|title=Wales| date=2001|first1=Geraint|last1= Lewis|first2= Lyn|last2= Davies|first3= Phyllis|last3= Kinney| url =