- Averch, Harvey and Leland Johnson. 1962. Behavior of the firm under regulatory constraint, American Economic Review, 52, pp. 1052-1069.
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- Bailey, Elizabeth M. 1996. Allowance Trading Activity and State Regulatory Rulings: Evidence from the U.S. Acid Rain Program, MIT-CEEPR 96-002 W.P., March.
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Bernstein, Mark, Alex Farrell, and James Winebrake. 1994. The Impact of Restricting the SO2 Allowance Market, Energy Policy, 22, pp. 748-754.
Bohi, Douglas and Dallas Burtraw. 1991. Avoiding Regulatory Gridlock in the Acid Rain Program, Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 676-684.
Bohi, Douglas and Dallas Burtraw. 1992. Utility Investment Behavior and the Emission Trading Market, Resources and Energy, vol. 14, no. 1-2, pp. 129-153.
Bohi, Douglas and Dallas Burtraw. 1997. SO2 Allowance Trading: How Do Expectations and Experience Measure Up? The Electricity Journal, vol. 10, no. 7, pp. 67-75.
Bohi, Douglas R. 1994. Utilities and State Regulators are failing to take advantage of emission allowance trading, The Electricity Journal, pp. 20-27.
- Carlson, Curtis, Dallas Burtraw, Maureen Cropper, and Karen L. Palmer. 1998. SO2 Control by Electric Utilities: What are the Gains from Trade?, working paper.
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- CASES: Re Ohio Power Co., 127 PUR4th 329 (Ohio P.U.C.1991). Compliance Preapproval Statutes: Senate Bill 143.
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- CASES: Re Potomac Edison Co., 129 PUR4TH 1 (MD.P.S.C.1992) Lile and Burtraw RFF 98-35 28 MASSACHUSETTS Rate of Return: No Action Cost recovery rules: No Action Treatment of benefits/costs from allowance transactions: Western Massachusetts Electric plans to credit ratepayers with 80% of the revenues it gains from selling SO2 allowances. The 80% credited to ratepayers is divided among demand-side management, environmental programs, and economic development incentives. A portion also goes directly toward offsetting rates. The remaining 20% of the revenues go to shareholders as an incentive for the utility company to obtain the maximum revenues possible for the sale of surplus SO2 allowances.
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Coggins, Jay S. and Vincent H. Smith. 1993. Some welfare effects of emission allowance trading in a twice-regulated industry, Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 275-297.
- Ellerman, A. Denny, Richard Schmalensee, Paul L. Joskow, Juan Pablo Montero, and Elizabeth M. Bailey. 1997. Summary Evaluation: The US SO2 Emissions Trading Program as Implemented in 1995.
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- Fullerton, Don, Shaun P. McDermott, and Jonathan P. Caulkins. 1995. Sulfur Dioxide Compliance of a regulated Utility, draft.
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Gordon, Robert J. 1990. The Measurement of Durable Goods Prices, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
- Lack of Action: N/A CASES: None Lile and Burtraw RFF 98-35 35 NEW YORK Rate of Return: No Action Cost recovery rules: Although not explicitly addressed, as of 1994, the New York Public Service Commission was leaning towards revenue rebate and recovery one for one through a fuel adjustment clause (FAC).
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- Lack of Action: N/A CASES: Re Illinois Power Co., 92-0191, Oct. 15, 1992 (Ill.C.C.). Re Central Ill. Pub. Serv. Co., 91-0193, March 18, 1992 (Ill.C.C.). Re Illinois Power Co., 127 PUR4th 354 (Ill.C.C.1991). Compliance Preapproval Statutes: Illinois Public Utilities Act, section 8-402.
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- Lile and Burtraw RFF 98-35 17 FLORIDA Rate of Return: No Action Cost recovery rules: In Florida, cost recovery clauses are used to either collect allowance expenses or rebate allowance revenues. One Florida utility uses an environmental compliance cost recovery clause while the other uses a fuel adjustment clause. Both clauses are adjusted every 6 months, once in the spring and once in the fall. The Florida PUC, however, allows net revenues generated from below the line allowance transactions to be retained 100 % by the utility.5 On April 13, 1993, Florida established an environmental cost recovery clause (ECRC). The new statute authorized the recovery of prudently incurred environmental compliance costs through the environmental cost recovery factor. The PSC defines environmental compliance costs as all costs or expenses incurred by an electric utility in complying with environmental laws or regulations, including but not limited to in-service capital investments.
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- Lile and Burtraw RFF 98-35 41 OKLAHOMA Rate of Return: No Action Cost recovery rules: No Action Treatment of benefits/costs from allowance transactions: No Action Action mandating or favoring a particular option: Oklahoma had passed a law requiring coal-fired electric utilities operating in the state to burn a mixture containing at least 10 percent Oklahoma-mined coal. On January 22, 1992, the United States Supreme Court struck down the law, describing it as protectionist and discriminatory (Wyoming v. Oklahoma, No.
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- Neutral: State Environmental Statute: Wisconsin Act 296, which went into effect on May 2, 1986, ordered the state's five major electric utilities to limit their SO2 by 1993 on an average corporate basis. The act was expected to reduce utility SO2 emissions from over 500,000 tons in 1980 to less than 250,000 tons by 1993.
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- Pre-approval of particular compliance plans: In Case No. 91-2011-EL-FOR, the Ohio Public Utilities Commission has ordered the state's eight major electric utilities to address CAAA90 compliance plans, including environmental and economic externalities and economic dispatch, as part of integrated resource plans for their 1992 long-range forecast reports.
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- Pre-approval of particular compliance plans: No Action Lack of Action: In May 1995, in Kansas City Power & Light Company's Case No. EO-95184, the PSC found that it was unnecessary for a decision to be made on the rate-making or accounting treatment for allowance sales.
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- Pre-approval of particular compliance plans: No Action Lack of Action: N/A CASES: Re Advance Plans for Construction of Facilities, 05-EP-6, Sept. 15, 1992 (Wis.P.S.C.).
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- Pre-approval of particular compliance plans: No Action Lack of Action: N/A CASES: Re Monongahela Power Co., 130 PUR4th 1 (W.V.P.S.C.1991).
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- Pre-approval of particular compliance plans: Prompted by requests from Carolina Power and Light and Duke Power, the North Carolina Commission ordered that allowances would be allowed to accrue a carrying charge on those allowances acquired for the purpose of achieving Phase II compliance. This carrying charge is analogous to the accrual charge allowed on cost of work in progress (CWIP). As a result, this action favors allowances. The North Carolina Commission also ordered that no portion of the net investment in allowance inventory would be considered by the Commission for inclusion in the rate base prior to the year 1999.
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- Pre-approval of particular compliance plans: The Pennsylvania General Assembly passed Act 27, 66 Pa. C.S.A. Section 530 (Supp. 1992) (signed into law by Governor Robert P.
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- Re West Penn Power Co., 123 PUR4th 3 (Pa.P.U.C.1991). Lile and Burtraw RFF 98-35 45 TENNESSEE Rate of Return: No Action Cost recovery rules: No Action Treatment of benefits/costs from allowance transactions: No Action Action mandating or favoring a particular option: The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) chose to go with a technology-based compliance plan with scrubbers as the key element in its strategy. Although the TVA system contained some low, average and high SO2 emitters, TVA had three sources that emitted more SO2 than the remaining 23 units (of the 26 total Phase I affected units) combined. As a result, any compliance strategy TVA came up with had to address one of the big three plants (Cumberland 1 & 2, Gallatin 1, 2, 3, & 4, and Paradise 3).
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Rico, Renee. 1995. The US Allowance Trading System for Sulfur Dioxide: An Update on Market Experience, Environmental and Resource Economics, 5, pp. 115-129.
- Rose, Kenneth and Robert E. Burns. 1993. Regulatory Policy Issues and the Clean Air Act: Issues and Papers from the State Implementation Workshops, The National Regulatory Research Institute, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio (July). Lile and Burtraw RFF 98-35 9
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- Rose, Kenneth, Alan S. Taylor, and Mohammad Harunuzzaman. 1993. Regulatory Treatment of Electric Utility Compliance Strategies, Costs and Emission Allowances, The National Regulatory Research Institute, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio (December).
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- Rose, Kenneth, Robert E. Burns, Jay S. Coggins, Mohammad Harunuzzaman, and Timothy W. Viezer. 1992. Public Utility Commission Implementation of the Clean Air Act's Allowance Trading Program, The National Regulatory Research Institute, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio (May).
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- Rose, Kenneth. 1997. “Implementing an Emissions Trading Program in an Economically Regulated Industry: Lessons from the SO2 Trading Program,†in Market Based Approaches to Environmental Policy: Regulatory Innovations to the Fore, Richard F. Kosobud and Jennifer M. Zimmerman (eds.), New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
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- Soloman, Barry D. 1994. SO2 allowance trading: what rules apply? Public Utilities Fortnightly, September 15.
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- Starting in December 1995, at the request of the Mississippi Power Company, the PSC revised the means by which revenues and expenses are recovered. The costs and gains from allowance purchases and sales are now incorporated into the fuel adjustment clause (FAC) and are now recovered in the same manner as other direct fuel expenses. All moneys continue to be recovered (or rebated) one for one to ratepayers. Treatment of benefits/costs from allowance transactions: The costs and gains from allowance purchases and sales and are recovered (or rebated) one for one to ratepayers through the fuel adjustment clause (FAC).
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- Through another mechanism, the Illinois Coal Bill (1991), Illinois tried to protect the continued use of Illinois coal by prohibiting a utility from switching fuels, absent commission approval, if the switch would decrease the utility's use of Illinois coal by more than 10 percent. The coal bill specifically mandated the installation of pollution control devices at Baldwin station and a Commonwealth Edison plant. It also provided for a $35 million grant for Illinois Power to support the scrubbing activities. This bill also provided for the inclusion Lile and Burtraw RFF 98-35 21 of pollution control CWIP in the rate base. It is our understanding that the courts ultimately ruled against these statutory directives on fuel use, but these initiatives were an important part of the policy dialogue during the early phase of compliance with Title IV.
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- Treatment of benefits/costs from allowance transactions: On March 2,1994, the New York Public Service Commission issued an order requiring all allowance moneys be deferred until a generic order is issued. At the time, the Commission was leaning towards revenue rebate and recovery one for one through a fuel adjustment clause (FAC). Another strong point of contention was how to treat allowance swaps and other allowance loans. This contention arose from trades in which the Long Island Lighting Company had been involved with.
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Winebrake, James J., Alexander E. Farrell, and Mark A. Bernstein. 1995. The Clean Air Act's sulfur dioxide emissions market: Estimating the costs of regulatory and legislative intervention, Resource and Energy Economics, 17, pp. 239-260.