Associate Professor; Director, Archaeology of Ancient Israel Program, Australian Catholic University; Managing Editor, Journal of the Numismatic Association of Australia.
ΓΡΑΜΑΤΑ ΑΡΧΑΙΑ: Studies in memory of David M. Lewis, 2024
This paper provides a new interpretation of the legal case in Lysias 30 and the implications rega... more This paper provides a new interpretation of the legal case in Lysias 30 and the implications regarding publication of the Athenian State Calendar.
A new algorithm is proposed that uses Pb isotopes to help identify the ore deposits utilized as s... more A new algorithm is proposed that uses Pb isotopes to help identify the ore deposits utilized as sources of silver in Antiquity. The algorithm takes natural and analytical isotope fractionation into account. It proposes a statistical measure of the distances between the Pb isotope compositions of ores and artifacts. This measure is amenable to statistical tests at any confidence level. The new algorithm is applied to the Pb isotope compositions of the end-members derived from 368 new Pb isotope data on silver coinage minted between the late 6th to late 2nd centuries BCE and presented in Albarede et al. (2024). The algorithm identifies the local sources expected for the mints associated with major silver ores found in the territories of Athens, Thasos, and Thrace, while demonstrating that Thrace, Northern Macedonia, and Chalkidiki supplied notable amounts of bullion to Aegina and Ptolemaic Egypt. Minor proportions of what we are designating an old Sardinian 'mix' created by long-distance trade was used by archaic Athens, Corinthia (Corinth and surrounding city-states), and Aegina. Various islands in the Cyclades (Siphnos, Keos, Seriphos) also appear to be early contributors to archaic Corinthian and Macedonian silver. The present study clearly demonstrates that recycled and mixed bullion formed a substantial part of the silver stocks of mints. The new algorithm warrants more detailed Pb isotopic studies of well-dated coinage to document the changing nature of silver fluxes over time.
Was silver coinage minted from fresh metal newly extracted from the mine or was it from recycled ... more Was silver coinage minted from fresh metal newly extracted from the mine or was it from recycled silver deriving from older coins, silverware, or cult objects? The answer helps understand the provenance of coins and their circulation. Using Pb isotopes, the present work proposes a method to disentangle the sources of 368 silver-alloy coins from Athens, Corinth, Aegina, Thasos, Thrace, Macedonia, and Ptolemaic Egypt. We outline a new mixing model based on Principal Component Analysis and allowing for multiple steps of bullion recycling. The first component accounts for 94-99% (typically 97-99%) of the total variance, which indicates that the data form a well-defined alignment indicative of a nearly binary mixture between two source ores referred to as 'endmembers'. Isotopic evidence establishes the subordinate but pervasive practice of remelting. The strong skewness of the first principal component distribution shows that lead is dominated by the binary mixing of end-members. The geologically young end-member has high 206 Pb/ 204 Pb and is best exemplified by Laurion ore used in Athenian coinage. With the possible exception of Ptolemaic samples, the second end-member attests to the persistence of a low-206 Pb/ 204 Pb, geologically much older, end-member. In most cases, the distributions of a further two principal components are nearly symmetric and can be considered normal. If they represent ore sources, their very small contribution to the total variance qualifies them as 'noise' (caused by random isotopic fluctuations in the ores and analytical issues). We find that the Pb isotope ratios in the coinage issued by each minting authority are distributed as a power law. The slope of this distribution varies from one mint to another, with the steepest slopes (Corinth and Ptolemaic Egypt) indicating the predominance of freshly mined silver. The shallow slope of Macedonia demands a larger proportion of geologically old Pb. Silver supplied to the mint of Athens shifted from a mixture of high-and low-206 Pb/ 204 Pb in the late 6th c. BCE to a predominance of unmixed high-206 Pb/ 204 Pb ore from the mines of Laurion thereafter and fell back to a mixture with intermediate Pb isotope compositions in the second half of the 4th c. BCE. The limitation of the present study resides in the relatively small number of Pb isotope data for each mint, which, in most cases, prevents a statistically significant analysis of these data by periods. Nevertheless, the quasi-binary nature of most silver mixes stands out as a new and strong first-order, albeit somewhat counterintuitive, inference from the present data.
The observed weights of ancient coins are usually less than the nominal ‘ideal’ weights of the co... more The observed weights of ancient coins are usually less than the nominal ‘ideal’ weights of the coin standards to which they belong because state authorities took a fee, ‘seigniorage’, for minting coins to cover costs and make a profit. The basis for calculating the amount taken by the state and the way it administered manufacture are not well understood. Here we analyse the weights of 1,344 of the earliest coins of Athens (c.550-479 BC). We reveal a parabolic relationship between the cost of the silver and the weights of the coins whereby a progressively higher proportion was taken as the denomination decreased, meaning that the smaller the coin, the larger the proportion of silver taken from it. There was tight control of the minting process and mathematical sophistication in precisely adjusting the silver content from the first introduction of coinage. It also made minting a profitable business. Changes in minting practice can be detected with the introduction of the Athenian ‘owl’ coins, when the percentage of silver taken by the state increased and the spread of weights widened to include coins weighing more than the nominal weight. The latter indicates a significant shift towards monetisation of the economy.
Wood et al. (2023), hereinafter WPB, unveils a number of historical issues relevant to Roman econ... more Wood et al. (2023), hereinafter WPB, unveils a number of historical issues relevant to Roman economy and metallurgy based on trace element and Pb isotope abundance data on a large set of important coins minted during the Roman Empire (Ponting and Butcher 2015). Here, we discuss several points which, in our view, misrepresent the work of other groups, ours included, and bias the overall interpretation of the WPB data set.
Ore deposits in the Balkan Peninsula were intensively mined for silver and other metals in the Ro... more Ore deposits in the Balkan Peninsula were intensively mined for silver and other metals in the Roman and medieval periods. Coinage mainly issued by tribal groups between the early 5th and the end of the 3rd century BCE provides indirect evidence that silver extraction predates the Roman conquest of the region. However, identification of centers of past metal production and reconstruction of large-scale silver fluxes can only be achieved using a comprehensive geochemical database of potential ores. Here, we present high-precision Pb–Ag–S isotope data and trace element systematics for 128 ore samples from 36 mineralizations from the Balkans as well as one semi-reacted ore from a settlement site (=archaeological sample) and one andesite analyzed as a whole-rock and as a K-feldspar separate. Each ore site was selected for its geological characteristics and documented or assumed historical and/or archaeological significance.
The reported data reconstruct the formation of ore bodies from large pre-existing Pb stocks derived from upper crustal sources, modified by tectonic and metasomatic processes, and eventually remobilized by magmatic activity. Lead isotope maps establish distinct isotopic domains which are linked to geological characteristics and enable an enhanced assessment of potential metal sources in provenance studies. Silver isotopes underscore the importance of hypogene ores of hydrothermal origin comprising galena or sulfosalt minerals as the main silver carrier phases and they can circumscribe ore deposits to those actually used as bullion sources of ancient coinage. We show that the Ag isotope signatures and the silver content of the argentiferous galena-rich ores in the Kopaonik and Zletovo districts (Serbia, Kosovo, and North Macedonia), combined with field evidence for historical metal production and geographical considerations, make them the most likely sources of silver which could have been used for coinage issued by mints in the interior of the Balkans.
Egypt has no domestic silver ore sources and silver is rarely found in the Egyptian archaeologica... more Egypt has no domestic silver ore sources and silver is rarely found in the Egyptian archaeological record until the Middle Bronze Age. Bracelets found in the tomb of queen Hetepheres I, mother of pyramid builder king Khufu (date of reign c. 2589-2566 BC), form the largest and most famous collection of silver artefacts from early Egypt, but they have not been analysed for decades. We analysed samples from the collection in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston using bulk XRF, micro-XRF, SEM-EDS, X-ray diffractometry and MC-ICP-MS to obtain elemental and mineralogical compositions and lead isotope ratios, to understand the nature and metallurgical treatment of the metal and identify the possible ore source. We found that the pieces consist of silver with trace copper, gold, lead and other elements. The minerals are silver, silver chloride and a possible trace of copper chloride. Surprisingly, the lead isotope ratios are consistent with ores from the Cyclades (Aegean islands, Greece), and to a lesser extent from Lavrion (Attica, Greece), and not partitioned from gold or electrum as previously surmised. Sources in Anatolia (Western Asia) can be excluded with a high degree of confidence. Imaging of a cross-section of a bracelet fragment reveals that the metal was repeatedly annealed and cold-hammered during creation of the artefacts. The results provide new information about silver ore sources, commodity exchange networks and metallurgy in Egypt during the Early Bronze Age.
Variations of 109 Ag/ 107 Ag in silver coins and ores are particularly useful in assessing the pr... more Variations of 109 Ag/ 107 Ag in silver coins and ores are particularly useful in assessing the provenance of silver bullion. Silver isotope variability results from the temperature-dependent thermodynamic fractionation of Ag isotopes among the solutions and minerals participating in ore formation. They differ from lead isotopic variations which result from the decay of uranium and thorium and reflect the geochemical properties and the tectonic age of the possible ore sources. A remarkable property of Ag isotopes is the very narrow range of isotopic variations in silver bullion used for coinage (±1×10 − 4) with respect to the range of ores (±1×10 − 3). To test the practical usefulness of the technique, we analyzed the Ag isotopic abundances of 29 ore samples from ancient mining districts in the Aegean with major and minor Ag-bearing mineralizations, and of 34 ancient Greek coins minted from the sixth to late fourth centuries BC. We distinguished two groups among the coins: a dominant population (93% of the samples) with 109 Ag/ 107 Ag consistent with literature data (ε 109 Ag = − 1 to +1) and an isotopically lighter population (ε 109 Ag = − 2 to − 1) which we show originated from Ag-bearing mineralizations in Lavrion (Attica). We further found that sulfur (also analyzed in this study) and silver isotope compositions in Aegean ores do not correlate, a finding that we confirmed on a selection of Iberian galena samples. This shows that the genetic ore type (whether hypo, meso, or epithermal) and silver productivity are not related. Finally, we undertook chemical analysis of the Aegean ore samples and confirmed that Ag-rich ores are also Sb-rich in both Greece and Iberia. A remarkable outcome of the present Ag isotope studies of galena ores from Iberia and Greece is that silver isotope compositions can exclude, with a high degree of reliability, the majority of mines identified by lead isotope analysis as sources from which coinage silver could plausibly have been extracted and thus significantly narrow down the actual source(s). Silver isotope data on galena ores are thus a useful tool for deciding which Pb isotope data included in ore databases should be included in provenance assessment studies. Contrary to some earlier assessments, subtle silver isotope variations can occasionally help determine ore provenance within a single mining district such as Lavrion.
Over the last 60 years, much analytical research has sought to determine the ore sources of ancie... more Over the last 60 years, much analytical research has sought to determine the ore sources of ancient Greek silver artefacts. Lead isotopic analysis has played a key role in this endeavor. While most studies so far have limited their search to places mentioned in historical sources, the present study takes a different approach by first identifying Ag-bearing ore sources in the Aegean world based on their geological characteristics and then using Pb isotopes to determine whether they were exploited in antiquity. To this end, we have geolocated, sampled, and measured high-precision Pb isotopic compositions of 17 Ag-bearing mineralizations in Greece for which we have evidence of ancient mining activity, and a further 10 exhibiting minor Ag occurrences that may also have been exploited in ancient times. We found that Pb model ages provide better discrimination of ore sources than the more conventional plots of raw Pb isotope data. Our study establishes Lavrion, northeast Chalkidiki, Pangaeon, Thasos, Siphnos, Palaea Kavala, Angistron, and south Euboea as the most important ancient silver mining districts in Greece. Two previously undiscovered ancient mining areas in Pelion and in the Kroussia mountain range are also documented. The latter may be identified with ancient Mount Dysoron, from which King Alexander I of Macedon reportedly extracted the fabulous sum of a talent of silver per day. For the first time, we isotopically differentiate some of the mining districts in Thraco-Macedonia, and show that the mines of Thasos include geologically different silver-bearing ore sources. We further identify the hitherto unrealized importance of Euboean silver mines and demonstrate that they isotopically overlap those of Siphnos, with major implications for our understanding of ancient Greek history.
Hacksilber facilitated trade and transactions from the beginning of the second millennium BCE unt... more Hacksilber facilitated trade and transactions from the beginning of the second millennium BCE until the late fourth century BCE in the southern Levant. Here we demonstrate the use of new, data-driven statistical approaches to interpret high-precision Pb isotope analysis of silver found in archaeological contexts for provenance determination. We sampled 45 pieces of Hacksilber from five hoards (Megiddo Area H, Eshtemoa, Tel Dor, ʿEn Gedi, and Tel Miqne-Ekron) and combined our data with recent literature data for the same hoards plus five more (Beth Shean, Ashkelon, Tell Keisan, Tel ʿAkko, and ʿEn Ḥofez) thus covering silver from the Late Bronze Age III (c.1200 BCE) to the end of the Iron Age IIC (586 BCE). Samples were taken by applying a new minimally destructive sampling technique. Lead was extracted using anion-exchange chromatography, and Pb isotopic compositions were measured by MC-ICP-MS. Data were treated using a new clustering method to identify statistically distinct groups of data, and a convex hull was applied to identify and constrain ore sources consistent with the isotopic signature of each group. Samples were grouped by minimizing variance within isotopic clusters and maximizing variance between isotopic clusters. We found that exchanges between the Levant and the Aegean world continued at least intermittently from the Late Bronze Age through to the Iron Age III, demonstrated by the prevalence of Lavrion (Attica), Macedonia, Thrace (northern Greece), southern Gaul (southern France), and Sardinia as long-lived major silver sources. Occasional exchanges with other west Mediterranean localities found in the isotopic record demonstrate that even though the Aegean world dominated silver supply during the Iron Age, exchanges between the eastern and the western Mediterranean did not altogether cease. The mixture of silver sources within hoards and relatively low purity of silver intentionally mixed with copper and arsenic suggest long-term hoarding and irregular, limited supply during the Iron Age I.
The reasons why the Western Mediterranean, especially Carthage and Rome, resisted monetization re... more The reasons why the Western Mediterranean, especially Carthage and Rome, resisted monetization relative to the Eastern Mediterranean are still unclear. Here, we address this question by combining lead and silver isotope abundances in silver coinage from the Aegean, Magna Graecia, Carthage, and the Roman Republic. The clear relationships which are observed between 109Ag/107Ag and 208Pb/206Pb, reflect mixing of silver ores or silver objects, and lead metal used for cupellation. The combined analyses of Ag and Pb isotopes reveal important information about the technology of smelting. The Greek world extracted Ag and Pb from associated ores, whereas, on the Iberian Peninsula, Carthaginians and Republican era Romans applied Phoenician cupellation techniques and added exotic Pb to lead-poor Ag ores. Massive silver re-cupellation is observed in Rome during the Second Punic War. After defeating the Carthaginians and the Macedonians in the late 2nd century BCE, the Romans brought together the efficient, millennium-old techniques of silver extraction of the Phoenicians, who considered this metal a simple commodity, with the monetization of economy introduced by the Greeks.
This article presents a Proto-Canaanite inscription written in ink on a jug. It was unearthed in ... more This article presents a Proto-Canaanite inscription written in ink on a jug. It was unearthed in 2019 at Khirbet al-Ra'i, located 4 km west of Tel Lachish, in a level dated to the late twelfth or early eleventh century BCE. Only part of the inscription had survived, with five letters indicating the personal name Yrb'l (Jerubba'al). This name also appears in the biblical tradition, more or less in the same era: "[Gideon] from that day was called Yrb'l" (Judg. 6:31-32). This inscription, together with similar inscriptions from Beth-Shemesh and Khirbet Qeiyafa, contributes to a better understanding of the distribution of theophoric names with the element ba'al in the eleventh-tenth centuries BCE in Judah.
Journal of the Numismatic Association of Australia, 2020
This is the introduction to volume 30, 2020 of the Journal of the Numismatic Association of Austr... more This is the introduction to volume 30, 2020 of the Journal of the Numismatic Association of Australia
Mines, Metals and Money: Ancient World Studies in Science, Archaeology and History (Metallurgy in Numismatics Vol. 6), 2020
Archaic owl tetradrachms form an important subset of our research into Early Attic coinage. This ... more Archaic owl tetradrachms form an important subset of our research into Early Attic coinage. This paper analyses their physical characteristics and silver content based on measurements of 424 owl tetradrachms and 81 owl obols for comparison with fractional coinage. The paper proposes that the tetradrachms were deliberately minted at their ideal standard weight and with a consistently high purity of silver to make them acceptable as an export coinage. This stood in contrast to the preceding 'Wappenmünzen' and contemporary fractional coinage both of which were minted primarily for use in the domestic market place. Test-cutting in antiquity appears to have been carried out as a matter of routine checking primarily by overseas end-users, rather than on suspicion of individual coins.
Mines, Metals and Money: Ancient World Studies in Science, Archaeology and History (Metallurgy in Numismatics Vol. 6), 2020
Three areas in mainland and Aegean Greece are known to have been important sources of silver duri... more Three areas in mainland and Aegean Greece are known to have been important sources of silver during antiquity: Laurion in south-east Attica, the Thraco-Macedonian region of northern Greece, and the Cycladic island of Siphnos. The mines of Siphnos are thought to have been a major source of silver for archaic Greece coinage, especially that of Aegina. Lead isotope and elemental analyses have been used in published studies of ores, slag and litharge (lead oxide; PbO) found on Siphnos, and elemental analyses on 12 coins. Here we present elemental analyses of one gold and 29 silver coins from Siphnos. This data leads us to reconsider the claim made by Gale et al. 1980 that the levels of bismuth in Siphnian silver are higher than those recorded levels for Laurion silver. Finally, the evidence of the analyses is considered in relation to the history of minting on Siphnos.
The conventional approach to ore provenance studies of ancient silver coins and artifacts has bee... more The conventional approach to ore provenance studies of ancient silver coins and artifacts has been to analyze them and try to match them to published data about mining districts, a difficult task given our incomplete knowledge. While literary sources are useful to identify possible provenances, they potentially bias interpretations proper because of a variety of limitations of their time. Archaeological evidence in the form of mining shafts, galleries, spoil heaps, tools also provides a tangible and reliable record for mining, but dating such activity can be problematic and the record is inconsistent. Here we propose a new approach driven by Pb isotopic data rather than numismatic groups. Statistical analysis of Pb isotopic data is used to identify ore-defined isotopic clusters. It is based on an algorithm that predicts the number of isotopic clusters necessary to fulfill the simple condition that variance within isotopic clusters is minimized whereas inter-cluster variance is maximized. Since each cluster reflects a discrete geological episode within a particular environment broadly datable to a Pb model age, it can be identified as a potential source exploited by ancient miners. We explore the potential of the new method in two examples using data from coins and ores respectively. In the first example, Roman Republican silver coins form three ‘endmember’ clusters sourced in mining districts with Cenozoic, Mesozoic, and Paleozoic Pb model ages. The example demonstrates how sources of silver used to mint coinage of the Roman Republic shifted within 50 years of the end of the Second Punic War in 201 BCE. In the second example using Aegean galena samples, Pb isotopes distinguish components with model ages datable to the Hercynian basement, the recent Aegean tectonic province and Cyprus, noting that significant silver mining districts may remain to be identified either in Spain or the Aegean world. In this paper we clarify a number of potential analytical issues and advocate that users of Pb isotopes for tracing archaeological artifacts measure all four lead isotopes and inspect the 12 proposed isotope combinations in order to select those that provide the best presentation of the data. We also emphasize that full advantage should be taken of the geologically informed parameters (model age and Th/U/Pb relationships) to identify the geological context of metal sources.
This article demonstrates that distinct and coherent silver sources can be discriminated from sur... more This article demonstrates that distinct and coherent silver sources can be discriminated from surface compositional analyses. In the first large-scale study of Archaic (pre-479 BC) Athenian silver coins in museum collections around the world, we analysed 787 coins by Energy Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry with a mathematical correction to provide a reliable composition for key diagnostic elements. Principal Component Analysis reveals compositional patterns including at least one copper-lead-gold (Cu, Pb, Au) triplet with strong clustering of data. The pattern for bismuth (Bi) was similar to, but not as clear as Pb. Considering elemental compositions in combination with a die study and isotopic analyses in the literature, we reveal when Lavrion was the metal source from which Wappenmünzen and Owl coinage types were struck, providing important new understanding about Athenian history in the pivotal period of transition from tyranny to democracy in the late sixth century BC. Beyond this specific example, we contend that XRF spectrometry could have wider application in studies of ancient silver, not least for a simplified triage protocol to help determine which silver artefacts should be subjected to slower, more costly and invasive trace elemental and isotopic analyses.
Mines, Metals and Money: Ancient World Studies in Science, Archaeology and History (Metallurgy in Numismatics Vol. 6), 2020
This paper presents fresh interpretations of 160 lead isotope analyses of Archaic Greek coins on ... more This paper presents fresh interpretations of 160 lead isotope analyses of Archaic Greek coins on the OXALID database based on new data for ore sources in Spain, Sardinia, Bulgaria, Romania, Greece, Turkey and Iran. It demonstrates that the earliest minters used far more diverse metal sources than the literary evidence suggests, and engaged in what could be described as opportunistic minting. Some currently held views on the importance of Siphnian silver, Peisistratid access to Thracian silver, the sources of Aiginetan, Thasian and Chian silver, the use of gold and tin as tracers for Siphnian and Lavrion silver, and the mixing of silver are challenged. Thoughts are offered on how archaic minting drove intensification of mining.
ΓΡΑΜΑΤΑ ΑΡΧΑΙΑ: Studies in memory of David M. Lewis, 2024
This paper provides a new interpretation of the legal case in Lysias 30 and the implications rega... more This paper provides a new interpretation of the legal case in Lysias 30 and the implications regarding publication of the Athenian State Calendar.
A new algorithm is proposed that uses Pb isotopes to help identify the ore deposits utilized as s... more A new algorithm is proposed that uses Pb isotopes to help identify the ore deposits utilized as sources of silver in Antiquity. The algorithm takes natural and analytical isotope fractionation into account. It proposes a statistical measure of the distances between the Pb isotope compositions of ores and artifacts. This measure is amenable to statistical tests at any confidence level. The new algorithm is applied to the Pb isotope compositions of the end-members derived from 368 new Pb isotope data on silver coinage minted between the late 6th to late 2nd centuries BCE and presented in Albarede et al. (2024). The algorithm identifies the local sources expected for the mints associated with major silver ores found in the territories of Athens, Thasos, and Thrace, while demonstrating that Thrace, Northern Macedonia, and Chalkidiki supplied notable amounts of bullion to Aegina and Ptolemaic Egypt. Minor proportions of what we are designating an old Sardinian 'mix' created by long-distance trade was used by archaic Athens, Corinthia (Corinth and surrounding city-states), and Aegina. Various islands in the Cyclades (Siphnos, Keos, Seriphos) also appear to be early contributors to archaic Corinthian and Macedonian silver. The present study clearly demonstrates that recycled and mixed bullion formed a substantial part of the silver stocks of mints. The new algorithm warrants more detailed Pb isotopic studies of well-dated coinage to document the changing nature of silver fluxes over time.
Was silver coinage minted from fresh metal newly extracted from the mine or was it from recycled ... more Was silver coinage minted from fresh metal newly extracted from the mine or was it from recycled silver deriving from older coins, silverware, or cult objects? The answer helps understand the provenance of coins and their circulation. Using Pb isotopes, the present work proposes a method to disentangle the sources of 368 silver-alloy coins from Athens, Corinth, Aegina, Thasos, Thrace, Macedonia, and Ptolemaic Egypt. We outline a new mixing model based on Principal Component Analysis and allowing for multiple steps of bullion recycling. The first component accounts for 94-99% (typically 97-99%) of the total variance, which indicates that the data form a well-defined alignment indicative of a nearly binary mixture between two source ores referred to as 'endmembers'. Isotopic evidence establishes the subordinate but pervasive practice of remelting. The strong skewness of the first principal component distribution shows that lead is dominated by the binary mixing of end-members. The geologically young end-member has high 206 Pb/ 204 Pb and is best exemplified by Laurion ore used in Athenian coinage. With the possible exception of Ptolemaic samples, the second end-member attests to the persistence of a low-206 Pb/ 204 Pb, geologically much older, end-member. In most cases, the distributions of a further two principal components are nearly symmetric and can be considered normal. If they represent ore sources, their very small contribution to the total variance qualifies them as 'noise' (caused by random isotopic fluctuations in the ores and analytical issues). We find that the Pb isotope ratios in the coinage issued by each minting authority are distributed as a power law. The slope of this distribution varies from one mint to another, with the steepest slopes (Corinth and Ptolemaic Egypt) indicating the predominance of freshly mined silver. The shallow slope of Macedonia demands a larger proportion of geologically old Pb. Silver supplied to the mint of Athens shifted from a mixture of high-and low-206 Pb/ 204 Pb in the late 6th c. BCE to a predominance of unmixed high-206 Pb/ 204 Pb ore from the mines of Laurion thereafter and fell back to a mixture with intermediate Pb isotope compositions in the second half of the 4th c. BCE. The limitation of the present study resides in the relatively small number of Pb isotope data for each mint, which, in most cases, prevents a statistically significant analysis of these data by periods. Nevertheless, the quasi-binary nature of most silver mixes stands out as a new and strong first-order, albeit somewhat counterintuitive, inference from the present data.
The observed weights of ancient coins are usually less than the nominal ‘ideal’ weights of the co... more The observed weights of ancient coins are usually less than the nominal ‘ideal’ weights of the coin standards to which they belong because state authorities took a fee, ‘seigniorage’, for minting coins to cover costs and make a profit. The basis for calculating the amount taken by the state and the way it administered manufacture are not well understood. Here we analyse the weights of 1,344 of the earliest coins of Athens (c.550-479 BC). We reveal a parabolic relationship between the cost of the silver and the weights of the coins whereby a progressively higher proportion was taken as the denomination decreased, meaning that the smaller the coin, the larger the proportion of silver taken from it. There was tight control of the minting process and mathematical sophistication in precisely adjusting the silver content from the first introduction of coinage. It also made minting a profitable business. Changes in minting practice can be detected with the introduction of the Athenian ‘owl’ coins, when the percentage of silver taken by the state increased and the spread of weights widened to include coins weighing more than the nominal weight. The latter indicates a significant shift towards monetisation of the economy.
Wood et al. (2023), hereinafter WPB, unveils a number of historical issues relevant to Roman econ... more Wood et al. (2023), hereinafter WPB, unveils a number of historical issues relevant to Roman economy and metallurgy based on trace element and Pb isotope abundance data on a large set of important coins minted during the Roman Empire (Ponting and Butcher 2015). Here, we discuss several points which, in our view, misrepresent the work of other groups, ours included, and bias the overall interpretation of the WPB data set.
Ore deposits in the Balkan Peninsula were intensively mined for silver and other metals in the Ro... more Ore deposits in the Balkan Peninsula were intensively mined for silver and other metals in the Roman and medieval periods. Coinage mainly issued by tribal groups between the early 5th and the end of the 3rd century BCE provides indirect evidence that silver extraction predates the Roman conquest of the region. However, identification of centers of past metal production and reconstruction of large-scale silver fluxes can only be achieved using a comprehensive geochemical database of potential ores. Here, we present high-precision Pb–Ag–S isotope data and trace element systematics for 128 ore samples from 36 mineralizations from the Balkans as well as one semi-reacted ore from a settlement site (=archaeological sample) and one andesite analyzed as a whole-rock and as a K-feldspar separate. Each ore site was selected for its geological characteristics and documented or assumed historical and/or archaeological significance.
The reported data reconstruct the formation of ore bodies from large pre-existing Pb stocks derived from upper crustal sources, modified by tectonic and metasomatic processes, and eventually remobilized by magmatic activity. Lead isotope maps establish distinct isotopic domains which are linked to geological characteristics and enable an enhanced assessment of potential metal sources in provenance studies. Silver isotopes underscore the importance of hypogene ores of hydrothermal origin comprising galena or sulfosalt minerals as the main silver carrier phases and they can circumscribe ore deposits to those actually used as bullion sources of ancient coinage. We show that the Ag isotope signatures and the silver content of the argentiferous galena-rich ores in the Kopaonik and Zletovo districts (Serbia, Kosovo, and North Macedonia), combined with field evidence for historical metal production and geographical considerations, make them the most likely sources of silver which could have been used for coinage issued by mints in the interior of the Balkans.
Egypt has no domestic silver ore sources and silver is rarely found in the Egyptian archaeologica... more Egypt has no domestic silver ore sources and silver is rarely found in the Egyptian archaeological record until the Middle Bronze Age. Bracelets found in the tomb of queen Hetepheres I, mother of pyramid builder king Khufu (date of reign c. 2589-2566 BC), form the largest and most famous collection of silver artefacts from early Egypt, but they have not been analysed for decades. We analysed samples from the collection in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston using bulk XRF, micro-XRF, SEM-EDS, X-ray diffractometry and MC-ICP-MS to obtain elemental and mineralogical compositions and lead isotope ratios, to understand the nature and metallurgical treatment of the metal and identify the possible ore source. We found that the pieces consist of silver with trace copper, gold, lead and other elements. The minerals are silver, silver chloride and a possible trace of copper chloride. Surprisingly, the lead isotope ratios are consistent with ores from the Cyclades (Aegean islands, Greece), and to a lesser extent from Lavrion (Attica, Greece), and not partitioned from gold or electrum as previously surmised. Sources in Anatolia (Western Asia) can be excluded with a high degree of confidence. Imaging of a cross-section of a bracelet fragment reveals that the metal was repeatedly annealed and cold-hammered during creation of the artefacts. The results provide new information about silver ore sources, commodity exchange networks and metallurgy in Egypt during the Early Bronze Age.
Variations of 109 Ag/ 107 Ag in silver coins and ores are particularly useful in assessing the pr... more Variations of 109 Ag/ 107 Ag in silver coins and ores are particularly useful in assessing the provenance of silver bullion. Silver isotope variability results from the temperature-dependent thermodynamic fractionation of Ag isotopes among the solutions and minerals participating in ore formation. They differ from lead isotopic variations which result from the decay of uranium and thorium and reflect the geochemical properties and the tectonic age of the possible ore sources. A remarkable property of Ag isotopes is the very narrow range of isotopic variations in silver bullion used for coinage (±1×10 − 4) with respect to the range of ores (±1×10 − 3). To test the practical usefulness of the technique, we analyzed the Ag isotopic abundances of 29 ore samples from ancient mining districts in the Aegean with major and minor Ag-bearing mineralizations, and of 34 ancient Greek coins minted from the sixth to late fourth centuries BC. We distinguished two groups among the coins: a dominant population (93% of the samples) with 109 Ag/ 107 Ag consistent with literature data (ε 109 Ag = − 1 to +1) and an isotopically lighter population (ε 109 Ag = − 2 to − 1) which we show originated from Ag-bearing mineralizations in Lavrion (Attica). We further found that sulfur (also analyzed in this study) and silver isotope compositions in Aegean ores do not correlate, a finding that we confirmed on a selection of Iberian galena samples. This shows that the genetic ore type (whether hypo, meso, or epithermal) and silver productivity are not related. Finally, we undertook chemical analysis of the Aegean ore samples and confirmed that Ag-rich ores are also Sb-rich in both Greece and Iberia. A remarkable outcome of the present Ag isotope studies of galena ores from Iberia and Greece is that silver isotope compositions can exclude, with a high degree of reliability, the majority of mines identified by lead isotope analysis as sources from which coinage silver could plausibly have been extracted and thus significantly narrow down the actual source(s). Silver isotope data on galena ores are thus a useful tool for deciding which Pb isotope data included in ore databases should be included in provenance assessment studies. Contrary to some earlier assessments, subtle silver isotope variations can occasionally help determine ore provenance within a single mining district such as Lavrion.
Over the last 60 years, much analytical research has sought to determine the ore sources of ancie... more Over the last 60 years, much analytical research has sought to determine the ore sources of ancient Greek silver artefacts. Lead isotopic analysis has played a key role in this endeavor. While most studies so far have limited their search to places mentioned in historical sources, the present study takes a different approach by first identifying Ag-bearing ore sources in the Aegean world based on their geological characteristics and then using Pb isotopes to determine whether they were exploited in antiquity. To this end, we have geolocated, sampled, and measured high-precision Pb isotopic compositions of 17 Ag-bearing mineralizations in Greece for which we have evidence of ancient mining activity, and a further 10 exhibiting minor Ag occurrences that may also have been exploited in ancient times. We found that Pb model ages provide better discrimination of ore sources than the more conventional plots of raw Pb isotope data. Our study establishes Lavrion, northeast Chalkidiki, Pangaeon, Thasos, Siphnos, Palaea Kavala, Angistron, and south Euboea as the most important ancient silver mining districts in Greece. Two previously undiscovered ancient mining areas in Pelion and in the Kroussia mountain range are also documented. The latter may be identified with ancient Mount Dysoron, from which King Alexander I of Macedon reportedly extracted the fabulous sum of a talent of silver per day. For the first time, we isotopically differentiate some of the mining districts in Thraco-Macedonia, and show that the mines of Thasos include geologically different silver-bearing ore sources. We further identify the hitherto unrealized importance of Euboean silver mines and demonstrate that they isotopically overlap those of Siphnos, with major implications for our understanding of ancient Greek history.
Hacksilber facilitated trade and transactions from the beginning of the second millennium BCE unt... more Hacksilber facilitated trade and transactions from the beginning of the second millennium BCE until the late fourth century BCE in the southern Levant. Here we demonstrate the use of new, data-driven statistical approaches to interpret high-precision Pb isotope analysis of silver found in archaeological contexts for provenance determination. We sampled 45 pieces of Hacksilber from five hoards (Megiddo Area H, Eshtemoa, Tel Dor, ʿEn Gedi, and Tel Miqne-Ekron) and combined our data with recent literature data for the same hoards plus five more (Beth Shean, Ashkelon, Tell Keisan, Tel ʿAkko, and ʿEn Ḥofez) thus covering silver from the Late Bronze Age III (c.1200 BCE) to the end of the Iron Age IIC (586 BCE). Samples were taken by applying a new minimally destructive sampling technique. Lead was extracted using anion-exchange chromatography, and Pb isotopic compositions were measured by MC-ICP-MS. Data were treated using a new clustering method to identify statistically distinct groups of data, and a convex hull was applied to identify and constrain ore sources consistent with the isotopic signature of each group. Samples were grouped by minimizing variance within isotopic clusters and maximizing variance between isotopic clusters. We found that exchanges between the Levant and the Aegean world continued at least intermittently from the Late Bronze Age through to the Iron Age III, demonstrated by the prevalence of Lavrion (Attica), Macedonia, Thrace (northern Greece), southern Gaul (southern France), and Sardinia as long-lived major silver sources. Occasional exchanges with other west Mediterranean localities found in the isotopic record demonstrate that even though the Aegean world dominated silver supply during the Iron Age, exchanges between the eastern and the western Mediterranean did not altogether cease. The mixture of silver sources within hoards and relatively low purity of silver intentionally mixed with copper and arsenic suggest long-term hoarding and irregular, limited supply during the Iron Age I.
The reasons why the Western Mediterranean, especially Carthage and Rome, resisted monetization re... more The reasons why the Western Mediterranean, especially Carthage and Rome, resisted monetization relative to the Eastern Mediterranean are still unclear. Here, we address this question by combining lead and silver isotope abundances in silver coinage from the Aegean, Magna Graecia, Carthage, and the Roman Republic. The clear relationships which are observed between 109Ag/107Ag and 208Pb/206Pb, reflect mixing of silver ores or silver objects, and lead metal used for cupellation. The combined analyses of Ag and Pb isotopes reveal important information about the technology of smelting. The Greek world extracted Ag and Pb from associated ores, whereas, on the Iberian Peninsula, Carthaginians and Republican era Romans applied Phoenician cupellation techniques and added exotic Pb to lead-poor Ag ores. Massive silver re-cupellation is observed in Rome during the Second Punic War. After defeating the Carthaginians and the Macedonians in the late 2nd century BCE, the Romans brought together the efficient, millennium-old techniques of silver extraction of the Phoenicians, who considered this metal a simple commodity, with the monetization of economy introduced by the Greeks.
This article presents a Proto-Canaanite inscription written in ink on a jug. It was unearthed in ... more This article presents a Proto-Canaanite inscription written in ink on a jug. It was unearthed in 2019 at Khirbet al-Ra'i, located 4 km west of Tel Lachish, in a level dated to the late twelfth or early eleventh century BCE. Only part of the inscription had survived, with five letters indicating the personal name Yrb'l (Jerubba'al). This name also appears in the biblical tradition, more or less in the same era: "[Gideon] from that day was called Yrb'l" (Judg. 6:31-32). This inscription, together with similar inscriptions from Beth-Shemesh and Khirbet Qeiyafa, contributes to a better understanding of the distribution of theophoric names with the element ba'al in the eleventh-tenth centuries BCE in Judah.
Journal of the Numismatic Association of Australia, 2020
This is the introduction to volume 30, 2020 of the Journal of the Numismatic Association of Austr... more This is the introduction to volume 30, 2020 of the Journal of the Numismatic Association of Australia
Mines, Metals and Money: Ancient World Studies in Science, Archaeology and History (Metallurgy in Numismatics Vol. 6), 2020
Archaic owl tetradrachms form an important subset of our research into Early Attic coinage. This ... more Archaic owl tetradrachms form an important subset of our research into Early Attic coinage. This paper analyses their physical characteristics and silver content based on measurements of 424 owl tetradrachms and 81 owl obols for comparison with fractional coinage. The paper proposes that the tetradrachms were deliberately minted at their ideal standard weight and with a consistently high purity of silver to make them acceptable as an export coinage. This stood in contrast to the preceding 'Wappenmünzen' and contemporary fractional coinage both of which were minted primarily for use in the domestic market place. Test-cutting in antiquity appears to have been carried out as a matter of routine checking primarily by overseas end-users, rather than on suspicion of individual coins.
Mines, Metals and Money: Ancient World Studies in Science, Archaeology and History (Metallurgy in Numismatics Vol. 6), 2020
Three areas in mainland and Aegean Greece are known to have been important sources of silver duri... more Three areas in mainland and Aegean Greece are known to have been important sources of silver during antiquity: Laurion in south-east Attica, the Thraco-Macedonian region of northern Greece, and the Cycladic island of Siphnos. The mines of Siphnos are thought to have been a major source of silver for archaic Greece coinage, especially that of Aegina. Lead isotope and elemental analyses have been used in published studies of ores, slag and litharge (lead oxide; PbO) found on Siphnos, and elemental analyses on 12 coins. Here we present elemental analyses of one gold and 29 silver coins from Siphnos. This data leads us to reconsider the claim made by Gale et al. 1980 that the levels of bismuth in Siphnian silver are higher than those recorded levels for Laurion silver. Finally, the evidence of the analyses is considered in relation to the history of minting on Siphnos.
The conventional approach to ore provenance studies of ancient silver coins and artifacts has bee... more The conventional approach to ore provenance studies of ancient silver coins and artifacts has been to analyze them and try to match them to published data about mining districts, a difficult task given our incomplete knowledge. While literary sources are useful to identify possible provenances, they potentially bias interpretations proper because of a variety of limitations of their time. Archaeological evidence in the form of mining shafts, galleries, spoil heaps, tools also provides a tangible and reliable record for mining, but dating such activity can be problematic and the record is inconsistent. Here we propose a new approach driven by Pb isotopic data rather than numismatic groups. Statistical analysis of Pb isotopic data is used to identify ore-defined isotopic clusters. It is based on an algorithm that predicts the number of isotopic clusters necessary to fulfill the simple condition that variance within isotopic clusters is minimized whereas inter-cluster variance is maximized. Since each cluster reflects a discrete geological episode within a particular environment broadly datable to a Pb model age, it can be identified as a potential source exploited by ancient miners. We explore the potential of the new method in two examples using data from coins and ores respectively. In the first example, Roman Republican silver coins form three ‘endmember’ clusters sourced in mining districts with Cenozoic, Mesozoic, and Paleozoic Pb model ages. The example demonstrates how sources of silver used to mint coinage of the Roman Republic shifted within 50 years of the end of the Second Punic War in 201 BCE. In the second example using Aegean galena samples, Pb isotopes distinguish components with model ages datable to the Hercynian basement, the recent Aegean tectonic province and Cyprus, noting that significant silver mining districts may remain to be identified either in Spain or the Aegean world. In this paper we clarify a number of potential analytical issues and advocate that users of Pb isotopes for tracing archaeological artifacts measure all four lead isotopes and inspect the 12 proposed isotope combinations in order to select those that provide the best presentation of the data. We also emphasize that full advantage should be taken of the geologically informed parameters (model age and Th/U/Pb relationships) to identify the geological context of metal sources.
This article demonstrates that distinct and coherent silver sources can be discriminated from sur... more This article demonstrates that distinct and coherent silver sources can be discriminated from surface compositional analyses. In the first large-scale study of Archaic (pre-479 BC) Athenian silver coins in museum collections around the world, we analysed 787 coins by Energy Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry with a mathematical correction to provide a reliable composition for key diagnostic elements. Principal Component Analysis reveals compositional patterns including at least one copper-lead-gold (Cu, Pb, Au) triplet with strong clustering of data. The pattern for bismuth (Bi) was similar to, but not as clear as Pb. Considering elemental compositions in combination with a die study and isotopic analyses in the literature, we reveal when Lavrion was the metal source from which Wappenmünzen and Owl coinage types were struck, providing important new understanding about Athenian history in the pivotal period of transition from tyranny to democracy in the late sixth century BC. Beyond this specific example, we contend that XRF spectrometry could have wider application in studies of ancient silver, not least for a simplified triage protocol to help determine which silver artefacts should be subjected to slower, more costly and invasive trace elemental and isotopic analyses.
Mines, Metals and Money: Ancient World Studies in Science, Archaeology and History (Metallurgy in Numismatics Vol. 6), 2020
This paper presents fresh interpretations of 160 lead isotope analyses of Archaic Greek coins on ... more This paper presents fresh interpretations of 160 lead isotope analyses of Archaic Greek coins on the OXALID database based on new data for ore sources in Spain, Sardinia, Bulgaria, Romania, Greece, Turkey and Iran. It demonstrates that the earliest minters used far more diverse metal sources than the literary evidence suggests, and engaged in what could be described as opportunistic minting. Some currently held views on the importance of Siphnian silver, Peisistratid access to Thracian silver, the sources of Aiginetan, Thasian and Chian silver, the use of gold and tin as tracers for Siphnian and Lavrion silver, and the mixing of silver are challenged. Thoughts are offered on how archaic minting drove intensification of mining.
Metallurgy in Numismatics 6. Mines, Metals, and Money: Ancient World Studies in Science, Archaeol... more Metallurgy in Numismatics 6. Mines, Metals, and Money: Ancient World Studies in Science, Archaeology and History contains 23 studies on geology and mining in ancient Greece, the manufacture and metallurgy of ancient Greek coins and the analysis and conservation of these coins. In the tradition of the Metallurgy in Numismatics series, the chapters collectively place numismatics within an interdisciplinary context. The volume uses the framework of behavioural archaeology to explore the life history and technology of coin manufacture and subsequent use, both ancient and modern. It covers topics ranging from the geological forces which created ores to mining, manufacture, loss and excavation through a broad range of scientific and numismatic techniques used to analyse and conserve coins. A key strength is the inclusion of contributions from leading international scholars translated into English. These provide access to French, German and Greek scholarship to an English-speaking audience, all with extensive bibliographies. The book will be of interest to historians, archaeologists, numismatists and others wanting a good understanding of the role and state of numismatics presented in an holistic and easily comprehensible format.
It is the quintessential nature of humans to communicate with each other. Good communications, ba... more It is the quintessential nature of humans to communicate with each other. Good communications, bad communications, miscommunications, or no communications at all have driven everything from world events to the most mundane of interactions. At the broadest level, communication entails many registers and modes: verbal, iconographic, symbolic, oral, written, and performed. Relationships and identities – real and fictive – arise from communication, but how and why were they effected and how should they be understood? The papers in this volume address some of the registers and modes of communication in the ancient Near East. Particular focuses are imperial and court communications between rulers and ruled, communications intended for a given community, and those between families and individuals. Topics cover a broad chronological period (3rd millennium BC to 1st millennium AD), and geographic range (Egypt to Israel and Mesopotamia) encapsulating the extraordinarily diverse plurality of human experience. This volume is deliberately inter-disciplinary and cross-cultural, and its broad scope provides wide insights and a holistic understanding of communication applicable today.
This is the full volume of the journal published under the open access policy of the Numismatic A... more This is the full volume of the journal published under the open access policy of the Numismatic Association of Australia, the peak body for numismatics in Australia.
This volume has been a long time in the making. Usually, an issue is based around the NAA annual ... more This volume has been a long time in the making. Usually, an issue is based around the NAA annual conference, but Covid made that impossible. More importantly, as the peak body for numismatics in the country, we are focussed on making each volume wide ranging, interesting and impactful. So, we waited on the completion of a couple of key contributions and have brought out a combined two-year issue which I have dubbed ‘the professors’ volume’ on account of the academic attainment of most of the authors. I trust you will agree that the results justify the decision, because here we offer a splendid collection of eleven articles on an eclectic range of topics with some of the best numismatic analysis and writing I have read.
Journal of the Numismatic Association of Australia, 2020
This special volume presents a collection of articles devoted to the topic of teaching with numis... more This special volume presents a collection of articles devoted to the topic of teaching with numismatics. It also honours one of Australia's leading scholars and numismatists, Emeritus Professor John Melville-Jone AM.
Journal of the Numismatic Association of Australia, 2018
This is the full version of Volume 29, 2018-19 of the Journal of the Numismatic Association of Au... more This is the full version of Volume 29, 2018-19 of the Journal of the Numismatic Association of Australia, the peak body for numismatics in Australia for which I am the Managing Editor. The journal is offered with open access. Half the articles are on topics drawn from ancient numismatics, and half from topics on coins, medals and banknotes of Australia and new Zealand.
Editor’s note 2017
The 28th volume of the journal of the Numismatic Association of Australia is ... more Editor’s note 2017
The 28th volume of the journal of the Numismatic Association of Australia is a bumper issue and my eighth as Managing Editor. There are eleven articles reflecting a remarkable range of numismatic interests. I am particularly pleased to see the balance of modern Australian and historical numismatic interests, and the excellent scholarship throughout. Many of the articles derive from presentations given at the wonderful NAA conference held in Melbourne from 21-22 October, 2017. I thank the presenters for being willing to quickly turn their talks into articles, despite the hard work this entailed, as well as the dedication of the other contributors.
This journal is the annual publication of the peak numismatic body in the country. As noted in the last volume, I have been working with the President and the Editorial Committee to ensure the standard of all articles we publish compares favourably with the best international numismatic journals. This includes a rigorous double-blind peer-review process. I thank the members of the Editorial Committee and the two anonymous reviewers assigned to each article for their prompt and constructive help.
In this volume we have six articles on modern Australian topics. The articles by Paul Holland and Walter bloom are numismatic studies respectively of George V pennies and award medals struck by the Royal Australian Institute of Architects, WA chapter. Their treatments are exemplary demonstrations of the ‘arcane art’ of numismatic studies combining detailed knowledge with keen observation. These are foundational studies for others to follow. Vincent Verheyen uses his expertise in chemistry to analyse surface marks on predecimal proof coins made at the Melbourne branch of the Royal Mint. He successfully demonstrates that some of the marks result from production rather than careless handling, a finding that will have implications for collectors of proofs generally. Jeremy McEachern, Barrie Newman and David Rampling show another side of numismatics – how it can be used to inform our understanding of the past. Their entertaining articles range from illuminating the story of one of Australia’s earliest dealers (Rampling on Isidore Kozminsky), to the sporting achievements of one of the country’s celebrated early athletes (McEachern on Richmond ‘Dick’ Eve and the collection of his memorabilia in the National Sports Museum), and even the sorry tale of an ‘official’ fraudster who nonetheless got away with his misdeeds (Newman on a Ugandan High Commissioner).
The volume also contains five articles on matters historical. Three of them deal with iconography and make fascinating reading, especially when taken together. Bridget McClean looks at Tarentine civic coinage c. 470 - 450 BC. Charlotte Mann and Rachel Mansfield both deal with iconography under emperors of the Severan dynasty of Rome in the early third century AD. Charlotte deals with the imperial portraiture of Caracalla, while Rachel examines the civic coinage of the eastern city of Antipatris under Elagabalus. The results of their studies are illuminating about how important coins were for disseminating propaganda, and in turn, understanding what was important to the emperors and cities that commissioned them. Christian Cuello takes us to the world of the Visigoths, best known for sacking Rome, but also producers of coinage, some of which reside in the Australian Centre for Ancient Numismatic Studies collection at Macquarie University, which he catalogues and discusses. Finally, Frank Robinson provides a careful study of bank notes of the Empire of Brazil which will be of interest to aficionados of paper money.
The complete journal. ARTICLES: Peter Lane, South Australian WWI soldiers’ ‘forget-me-not’ pennie... more The complete journal. ARTICLES: Peter Lane, South Australian WWI soldiers’ ‘forget-me-not’ pennies; Talia Knowles, Expansion, bribery and an unpublished tetradrachm of Alexander I; Max Everest-Phillips, An Oz at Oxford: Australia rowing into World War II; Jean-Albert Chevillon, Pere Pau Ripollès, The Greek Far West: an exceptional adaptation of a design from Asia Minor with bull and lion foreparts; Michael Hermes, Peter Lane, Nenad Lonic, Ian McIntosh, The discovery of an eighteenth century Chinese Cash coin on Elcho Island, Northern Territory; Matthew Ellams, Emily Morgan, Clare Rowan, Bradley Waters, Experiencing the Republican Empire: a numismatic perspective; Barrie Newman, Allan J Olson Pty Ltd: medal and badge makers of Adelaide (1966 to present); Kenneth Sheedy, Sicilian accessions for ACANS: Akragas, Messana, Syracuse and Katane.
Variations of 109 Ag/ 107 Ag in silver coins and ores are particularly useful in assessing the pr... more Variations of 109 Ag/ 107 Ag in silver coins and ores are particularly useful in assessing the provenance of silver bullion. Silver isotope variability results from the temperature-dependent thermodynamic fractionation of Ag isotopes among the solutions and minerals participating in ore formation. They differ from lead isotopic variations which result from the decay of uranium and thorium and reflect the geochemical properties and the tectonic age of the possible ore sources. A remarkable property of Ag isotopes is the very narrow range of isotopic variations in silver bullion used for coinage (±1×10 − 4) with respect to the range of ores (±1×10 − 3). To test the practical usefulness of the technique, we analyzed the Ag isotopic abundances of 29 ore samples from ancient mining districts in the Aegean with major and minor Ag-bearing mineralizations, and of 34 ancient Greek coins minted from the sixth to late fourth centuries BC. We distinguished two groups among the coins: a dominant population (93% of the samples) with 109 Ag/ 107 Ag consistent with literature data (ε 109 Ag = − 1 to +1) and an isotopically lighter population (ε 109 Ag = − 2 to − 1) which we show originated from Ag-bearing mineralizations in Lavrion (Attica). We further found that sulfur (also analyzed in this study) and silver isotope compositions in Aegean ores do not correlate, a finding that we confirmed on a selection of Iberian galena samples. This shows that the genetic ore type (whether hypo, meso, or epithermal) and silver productivity are not related. Finally, we undertook chemical analysis of the Aegean ore samples and confirmed that Ag-rich ores are also Sb-rich in both Greece and Iberia. A remarkable outcome of the present Ag isotope studies of galena ores from Iberia and Greece is that silver isotope compositions can exclude, with a high degree of reliability, the majority of mines identified by lead isotope analysis as sources from which coinage silver could plausibly have been extracted and thus significantly narrow down the actual source(s). Silver isotope data on galena ores are thus a useful tool for deciding which Pb isotope data included in ore databases should be included in provenance assessment studies. Contrary to some earlier assessments, subtle silver isotope variations can occasionally help determine ore provenance within a single mining district such as Lavrion.
Over the last 60 years, much analytical research has sought to determine the ore sources of ancie... more Over the last 60 years, much analytical research has sought to determine the ore sources of ancient Greek silver artefacts. Lead isotopic analysis has played a key role in this endeavor. While most studies so far have limited their search to places mentioned in historical sources, the present study takes a different approach by first identifying Ag-bearing ore sources in the Aegean world based on their geological characteristics and then using Pb isotopes to determine whether they were exploited in antiquity. To this end, we have geolocated, sampled, and measured high-precision Pb isotopic compositions of 17 Ag-bearing mineralizations in Greece for which we have evidence of ancient mining activity, and a further 10 exhibiting minor Ag occurrences that may also have been exploited in ancient times. We found that Pb model ages provide better discrimination of ore sources than the more conventional plots of raw Pb isotope data. Our study establishes Lavrion, northeast Chalkidiki, Pangaeon, Thasos, Siphnos, Palaea Kavala, Angistron, and south Euboea as the most important ancient silver mining districts in Greece. Two previously undiscovered ancient mining areas in Pelion and in the Kroussia mountain range are also documented. The latter may be identified with ancient Mount Dysoron, from which King Alexander I of Macedon reportedly extracted the fabulous sum of a talent of silver per day. For the first time, we isotopically differentiate some of the mining districts in Thraco-Macedonia, and show that the mines of Thasos include geologically different silver-bearing ore sources. We further identify the hitherto unrealized importance of Euboean silver mines and demonstrate that they isotopically overlap those of Siphnos, with major implications for our understanding of ancient Greek history.
The final program of the second annual meeting of the Mediterranean Archaeology Australasian Rese... more The final program of the second annual meeting of the Mediterranean Archaeology Australasian Research Community: 31 January - 2 February 2022 via Zoom, co-hosted by the University of Melbourne and the University of Auckland
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Papers by Gil Davis
The reported data reconstruct the formation of ore bodies from large pre-existing Pb stocks derived from upper crustal sources, modified by tectonic and metasomatic processes, and eventually remobilized by magmatic activity. Lead isotope maps establish distinct isotopic domains which are linked to geological characteristics and enable an enhanced assessment of potential metal sources in provenance studies. Silver isotopes underscore the importance of hypogene ores of hydrothermal origin comprising galena or sulfosalt minerals as the main silver carrier phases and they can circumscribe ore deposits to those actually used as bullion sources of ancient coinage. We show that the Ag isotope signatures and the silver content of the argentiferous galena-rich ores in the Kopaonik and Zletovo districts (Serbia, Kosovo, and North Macedonia), combined with field evidence for historical metal production and geographical considerations, make them the most likely sources of silver which could have been used for coinage issued by mints in the interior of the Balkans.
Pb. Considering elemental compositions in combination with a die study and isotopic analyses in the literature, we reveal when Lavrion was the metal source from which Wappenmünzen and Owl coinage types were struck, providing important new understanding about Athenian history in the pivotal period of transition from tyranny to democracy in the late sixth century BC. Beyond this specific example, we contend that XRF spectrometry could have wider application in studies of ancient silver, not least for a simplified triage protocol to help determine which silver artefacts should be subjected to slower, more costly and invasive trace elemental and isotopic analyses.
The reported data reconstruct the formation of ore bodies from large pre-existing Pb stocks derived from upper crustal sources, modified by tectonic and metasomatic processes, and eventually remobilized by magmatic activity. Lead isotope maps establish distinct isotopic domains which are linked to geological characteristics and enable an enhanced assessment of potential metal sources in provenance studies. Silver isotopes underscore the importance of hypogene ores of hydrothermal origin comprising galena or sulfosalt minerals as the main silver carrier phases and they can circumscribe ore deposits to those actually used as bullion sources of ancient coinage. We show that the Ag isotope signatures and the silver content of the argentiferous galena-rich ores in the Kopaonik and Zletovo districts (Serbia, Kosovo, and North Macedonia), combined with field evidence for historical metal production and geographical considerations, make them the most likely sources of silver which could have been used for coinage issued by mints in the interior of the Balkans.
Pb. Considering elemental compositions in combination with a die study and isotopic analyses in the literature, we reveal when Lavrion was the metal source from which Wappenmünzen and Owl coinage types were struck, providing important new understanding about Athenian history in the pivotal period of transition from tyranny to democracy in the late sixth century BC. Beyond this specific example, we contend that XRF spectrometry could have wider application in studies of ancient silver, not least for a simplified triage protocol to help determine which silver artefacts should be subjected to slower, more costly and invasive trace elemental and isotopic analyses.
A key strength is the inclusion of contributions from leading international scholars translated into English. These provide access to French, German and Greek scholarship to an English-speaking audience, all with extensive bibliographies. The book will be of interest to historians, archaeologists, numismatists and others wanting a good understanding of the role and state of numismatics presented in an holistic and easily comprehensible format.
The 28th volume of the journal of the Numismatic Association of Australia is a bumper issue and my eighth as Managing Editor. There are eleven articles reflecting a remarkable range of numismatic interests. I am particularly pleased to see the balance of modern Australian and historical numismatic interests, and the excellent scholarship throughout. Many of the articles derive from presentations given at the wonderful NAA conference held in Melbourne from 21-22 October, 2017. I thank the presenters for being willing to quickly turn their talks into articles, despite the hard work this entailed, as well as the dedication of the other contributors.
This journal is the annual publication of the peak numismatic body in the country. As noted in the last volume, I have been working with the President and the Editorial Committee to ensure the standard of all articles we publish compares favourably with the best international numismatic journals. This includes a rigorous double-blind peer-review process. I thank the members of the Editorial Committee and the two anonymous reviewers assigned to each article for their prompt and constructive help.
In this volume we have six articles on modern Australian topics. The articles by Paul Holland and Walter bloom are numismatic studies respectively of George V pennies and award medals struck by the Royal Australian Institute of Architects, WA chapter. Their treatments are exemplary demonstrations of the ‘arcane art’ of numismatic studies combining detailed knowledge with keen observation. These are foundational studies for others to follow. Vincent Verheyen uses his expertise in chemistry to analyse surface marks on predecimal proof coins made at the Melbourne branch of the Royal Mint. He successfully demonstrates that some of the marks result from production rather than careless handling, a finding that will have implications for collectors of proofs generally. Jeremy McEachern, Barrie Newman and David Rampling show another side of numismatics – how it can be used to inform our understanding of the past. Their entertaining articles range from illuminating the story of one of Australia’s earliest dealers (Rampling on Isidore Kozminsky), to the sporting achievements of one of the country’s celebrated early athletes (McEachern on Richmond ‘Dick’ Eve and the collection of his memorabilia in the National Sports Museum), and even the sorry tale of an ‘official’ fraudster who nonetheless got away with his misdeeds (Newman on a Ugandan High Commissioner).
The volume also contains five articles on matters historical. Three of them deal with iconography and make fascinating reading, especially when taken together. Bridget McClean looks at Tarentine civic coinage c. 470 - 450 BC. Charlotte Mann and Rachel Mansfield both deal with iconography under emperors of the Severan dynasty of Rome in the early third century AD. Charlotte deals with the imperial portraiture of Caracalla, while Rachel examines the civic coinage of the eastern city of Antipatris under Elagabalus. The results of their studies are illuminating about how important coins were for disseminating propaganda, and in turn, understanding what was important to the emperors and cities that commissioned them. Christian Cuello takes us to the world of the Visigoths, best known for sacking Rome, but also producers of coinage, some of which reside in the Australian Centre for Ancient Numismatic Studies collection at Macquarie University, which he catalogues and discusses. Finally, Frank Robinson provides a careful study of bank notes of the Empire of Brazil which will be of interest to aficionados of paper money.