India’s level of urbanisation was about 17% in the 1951 census, just after the independence. Afte... more India’s level of urbanisation was about 17% in the 1951 census, just after the independence. After six decades, it just doubled. Except for the decade of 1971-81, the rate of urbanisation was quite slow. The first decade after the economic reforms reported the rate of urbanisation as too low. In this perspective, the 2011 Census figures about urbanisation were hailed as the ‘arrival of urban age in India’. It was because of two reasons: the rate of urban growth in the country for the first time crossed the rate of rural growth after independence. Secondly, the number of new towns in the country was about 2500. This number is spectacular because about the same number of towns emerged during a hundred years, 1901-2001. And of the states, West Bengal tops the list with about 590 towns, followed by Kerala. A closer inspection in the urbanisation scenario changes the euphoria to a matter of grave concern. None of the facts stated above changed the overall perspective of urbanisation in the country. The higher rate of urbanisation was instead a reflection of rural distress and change-over of occupation from agriculture to tertiarisation in the informal sector. This paper explores the details of the new towns in West Bengal in general and then takes up the study to the districts and some specific census towns.
In many ways, Kolkata is a victim of its own success. Such has been population growth in India&am... more In many ways, Kolkata is a victim of its own success. Such has been population growth in India's 'first city' since colonial times that where to house people has been a perennial problem. It is now vital for Kolkata's 15 million residents that planning for future growth takes into account the threat of climate change.
In many ways, Kolkata is a victim of its own success. Such has been population growth in India's ... more In many ways, Kolkata is a victim of its own success. Such has been population growth in India's 'first city' since colonial times that where to house people has been a perennial problem. It is now vital for Kolkata's 15 million residents that planning for future growth takes into account the threat of climate change.
West Bengal, among the major states, was fourth in rank at the time of Independence, slid down to... more West Bengal, among the major states, was fourth in rank at the time of Independence, slid down to 7 in 2001. It has been above the all-India average throughout in level of urbanisation but the rate slowed down. There are reasons behind the loss of the pace of urbanisation in the state. Firstly, the partition of the country robbed away the urban hierarchy of the state, along with the economic forces behind urbanisation. The rate of urbanisation was slow and most of the new towns emerged around Kolkata or in the Durgapur-Asansol region. Primacy of the city of Kolkata was the most notable feature of urbanisation of the state. Most of the other Class I towns were also in the Kolkata Metropolitan Area. Inter-district disparities in level and pace of urbanisation showed the same trend over the decades. The districts in northern and western parts were least urbanised. The winds of change came in the eighties when the Left front Government went for land reform along with recording the names of the share-croppers. This led to a spurt in agricultural production especially paddy. On the urban front, conscious policy decisions for the development of non-metro towns and regular elections in the local self-government institutions (both urban and rural) also yielded some positive results towards balanced urbanisation. The primacy of Kolkata started to decline and the growth of urban population was more spatially spread. However, the results of 2011 census came almost as a surprise. At the national level, the rate of growth of urban population surpassed that of the rural and West Bengal, the growth rate jumped to 14%. Secondly, of the 2500+ new census towns of the country, West Bengal tops the list with about 582 new towns. Now, researches are going on to find out the reasons behind this change. This paper will look into the small and medium towns of West Bengal and discuss the issues of urban governance and planning for these towns. 2
India’s level of urbanisation was about 17% in the 1951 census, just after the independence. Afte... more India’s level of urbanisation was about 17% in the 1951 census, just after the independence. After six decades, it just doubled. Except for the decade of 1971-81, the rate of urbanisation was quite slow. The first decade after the economic reforms reported the rate of urbanisation as too low. In this perspective, the 2011 Census figures about urbanisation were hailed as the ‘arrival of urban age in India’. It was because of two reasons: the rate of urban growth in the country for the first time crossed the rate of rural growth after independence. Secondly, the number of new towns in the country was about 2500. This number is spectacular because about the same number of towns emerged during a hundred years, 1901-2001. And of the states, West Bengal tops the list with about 590 towns, followed by Kerala. A closer inspection in the urbanisation scenario changes the euphoria to a matter of grave concern. None of the facts stated above changed the overall perspective of urbanisation in the country. The higher rate of urbanisation was instead a reflection of rural distress and change-over of occupation from agriculture to tertiarisation in the informal sector. This paper explores the details of the new towns in West Bengal in general and then takes up the study to the districts and some specific census towns.
In all of the municipalities in this study, the share of establishment expenses in revenue expend... more In all of the municipalities in this study, the share of establishment expenses in revenue expenditures is within favourable limits. Also, all of these municipalities are making capital expenditures satisfactorily. revenue expenditures for urban basic services are paid out from the own source revenues of municipalities - supplemented by government revenue grants. Capital expenditures are mostly provided by government capital grants though it is falling far short of requirement. Before economic liberalization loans at concessional terms were available from public financial institutions for investment in municipal infrastructures but now at competitive market rates.
India, a country with a vast land area and population, has crossed the 30% level only in terms of... more India, a country with a vast land area and population, has crossed the 30% level only in terms of urbanization as per its latest census in 2011. The Census authority identifies urban areas in the country on the basis of either of the following two criteria: a) All the settlements having any form of local government are called statutory towns; b) Apart from these statutory towns, Census authority of India declares some areas as towns if they satisfy the following three criteria simultaneously: i) size criterion: the population of the area must be at least 5000. ii) density criterion: the density of population in the area should be at least 1000 persons per sq. kilometre. iii) occupation criterion: at least 75 percent of the male workforce should be engaged in the non-agricultural activities. Towns identified by the second criterion (b) are called census towns. The average level of urbanisation hardly says anything about the regional diversity in urbanisation in the country. The small...
India’s level of urbanisation was about 17% in the 1951 census, just after the independence. Afte... more India’s level of urbanisation was about 17% in the 1951 census, just after the independence. After six decades, it just doubled. Except for the decade of 1971-81, the rate of urbanisation was quite slow. The first decade after the economic reforms reported the rate of urbanisation as too low. In this perspective, the 2011 Census figures about urbanisation were hailed as the ‘arrival of urban age in India’. It was because of two reasons: the rate of urban growth in the country for the first time crossed the rate of rural growth after independence. Secondly, the number of new towns in the country was about 2500. This number is spectacular because about the same number of towns emerged during a hundred years, 1901-2001. And of the states, West Bengal tops the list with about 590 towns, followed by Kerala. A closer inspection in the urbanisation scenario changes the euphoria to a matter of grave concern. None of the facts stated above changed the overall perspective of urbanisation in the country. The higher rate of urbanisation was instead a reflection of rural distress and change-over of occupation from agriculture to tertiarisation in the informal sector. This paper explores the details of the new towns in West Bengal in general and then takes up the study to the districts and some specific census towns.
In many ways, Kolkata is a victim of its own success. Such has been population growth in India&am... more In many ways, Kolkata is a victim of its own success. Such has been population growth in India's 'first city' since colonial times that where to house people has been a perennial problem. It is now vital for Kolkata's 15 million residents that planning for future growth takes into account the threat of climate change.
In many ways, Kolkata is a victim of its own success. Such has been population growth in India's ... more In many ways, Kolkata is a victim of its own success. Such has been population growth in India's 'first city' since colonial times that where to house people has been a perennial problem. It is now vital for Kolkata's 15 million residents that planning for future growth takes into account the threat of climate change.
West Bengal, among the major states, was fourth in rank at the time of Independence, slid down to... more West Bengal, among the major states, was fourth in rank at the time of Independence, slid down to 7 in 2001. It has been above the all-India average throughout in level of urbanisation but the rate slowed down. There are reasons behind the loss of the pace of urbanisation in the state. Firstly, the partition of the country robbed away the urban hierarchy of the state, along with the economic forces behind urbanisation. The rate of urbanisation was slow and most of the new towns emerged around Kolkata or in the Durgapur-Asansol region. Primacy of the city of Kolkata was the most notable feature of urbanisation of the state. Most of the other Class I towns were also in the Kolkata Metropolitan Area. Inter-district disparities in level and pace of urbanisation showed the same trend over the decades. The districts in northern and western parts were least urbanised. The winds of change came in the eighties when the Left front Government went for land reform along with recording the names of the share-croppers. This led to a spurt in agricultural production especially paddy. On the urban front, conscious policy decisions for the development of non-metro towns and regular elections in the local self-government institutions (both urban and rural) also yielded some positive results towards balanced urbanisation. The primacy of Kolkata started to decline and the growth of urban population was more spatially spread. However, the results of 2011 census came almost as a surprise. At the national level, the rate of growth of urban population surpassed that of the rural and West Bengal, the growth rate jumped to 14%. Secondly, of the 2500+ new census towns of the country, West Bengal tops the list with about 582 new towns. Now, researches are going on to find out the reasons behind this change. This paper will look into the small and medium towns of West Bengal and discuss the issues of urban governance and planning for these towns. 2
India’s level of urbanisation was about 17% in the 1951 census, just after the independence. Afte... more India’s level of urbanisation was about 17% in the 1951 census, just after the independence. After six decades, it just doubled. Except for the decade of 1971-81, the rate of urbanisation was quite slow. The first decade after the economic reforms reported the rate of urbanisation as too low. In this perspective, the 2011 Census figures about urbanisation were hailed as the ‘arrival of urban age in India’. It was because of two reasons: the rate of urban growth in the country for the first time crossed the rate of rural growth after independence. Secondly, the number of new towns in the country was about 2500. This number is spectacular because about the same number of towns emerged during a hundred years, 1901-2001. And of the states, West Bengal tops the list with about 590 towns, followed by Kerala. A closer inspection in the urbanisation scenario changes the euphoria to a matter of grave concern. None of the facts stated above changed the overall perspective of urbanisation in the country. The higher rate of urbanisation was instead a reflection of rural distress and change-over of occupation from agriculture to tertiarisation in the informal sector. This paper explores the details of the new towns in West Bengal in general and then takes up the study to the districts and some specific census towns.
In all of the municipalities in this study, the share of establishment expenses in revenue expend... more In all of the municipalities in this study, the share of establishment expenses in revenue expenditures is within favourable limits. Also, all of these municipalities are making capital expenditures satisfactorily. revenue expenditures for urban basic services are paid out from the own source revenues of municipalities - supplemented by government revenue grants. Capital expenditures are mostly provided by government capital grants though it is falling far short of requirement. Before economic liberalization loans at concessional terms were available from public financial institutions for investment in municipal infrastructures but now at competitive market rates.
India, a country with a vast land area and population, has crossed the 30% level only in terms of... more India, a country with a vast land area and population, has crossed the 30% level only in terms of urbanization as per its latest census in 2011. The Census authority identifies urban areas in the country on the basis of either of the following two criteria: a) All the settlements having any form of local government are called statutory towns; b) Apart from these statutory towns, Census authority of India declares some areas as towns if they satisfy the following three criteria simultaneously: i) size criterion: the population of the area must be at least 5000. ii) density criterion: the density of population in the area should be at least 1000 persons per sq. kilometre. iii) occupation criterion: at least 75 percent of the male workforce should be engaged in the non-agricultural activities. Towns identified by the second criterion (b) are called census towns. The average level of urbanisation hardly says anything about the regional diversity in urbanisation in the country. The small...
Natural disasters are not uncommon to the Planet Earth from time immemorial. But it has become a ... more Natural disasters are not uncommon to the Planet Earth from time immemorial. But it has become a matter of concern in the age of urbanisation with the spread of built up environment. Natural disasters are of many type and the particular geo-morphological and climatic conditions of an area determines the type and frequency of the disaster. There are degrees of damage and loss to the private and public properties in case of strike of disaster. Any area has its degree of preparedness for the most common disaster of the region; it often ignores the other possibilities. Disaster management ideally should have a two-pronged approach – with technological ability and public participation. Both of these are crucially dependent on the social and economic condition of the area and the concerned institutions – which are guided by the political ethos of the government. Keeping this perspective in mind, this paper will critically explore the functioning of the disaster management unit of the urban local bodies in the Kolkata Metropolitan Area – the largest urban agglomeration in the Lower Ganga Plain. The main form of natural calamity here is flooding due to excessive rain in the monsoon months which affects the functioning of civic amenities and in turn the daily lives of the common people.
Small towns are coming up in Darjeeling district without any proper economic base. Infrastructura... more Small towns are coming up in Darjeeling district without any proper economic base. Infrastructural deficiency makes these towns ecologically vulnerable. The paper questions the sustainability of such towns in the long run in an ecology-economy interface
India, a country with a vast land area and population, has crossed the 30% level only in terms of... more India, a country with a vast land area and population, has crossed the 30% level only in terms of urbanization as per its latest census in 2011. The Census authority identifies urban areas in the country on the basis of either of the following two criteria: a) All the settlements having any form of local government are called statutory towns; b) Apart from these statutory towns, Census authority of India declares some areas as towns if they satisfy the following three criteria simultaneously: i) size criterion: the population of the area must be at least 5000. ii) density criterion: the density of population in the area should be at least 1000 persons per sq. kilometre. iii) occupation criterion: at least 75 percent of the male workforce should be engaged in the non-agricultural activities. Towns identified by the second criterion (b) are called census towns. The average level of urbanisation hardly says anything about the regional diversity in urbanisation in the country. The smaller city states (e.g. Delhi, Chandigarh and Goa) have urbanisation level nearly 100 percent. Among the large states the highest level of urbanisation in the southern state of Tamil Nadu, followed by western states of Maharashtra and Gujarat. This regional diversity in the level (and also rate) of urbanisation partly resulted by the colonial legacy, partly by the forces affecting the process of urbanisation and partly by the post-independence experience of India in economic growth and development. India was rightly designated as a ‘land of villages’ for a long time as a major part of its Gross Domestic Product came from primary sector and more than two-third of the population was engaged there. But the picture started to change after 1991, when the country started to move from the centrally planned model to the globalised-liberalised era. For the last twenty years, the growth in the country has been through the expansion of tertiary activities, especially the service sector. Now, more than 60% of the Gross Domestic Product is generated in the urban centres. The impact of such a change is manifested in the rate of urbanisation in the last decade. For the first time in the post-independence period, the rate of growth of urban population has surpassed their rural counterpart. Another manifestation is in the emergence of new census towns in the country. The last decade saw the emergence of more than 2500 new towns, which is more than the number that emerged in the preceding century (1901-2001). But a look into the state-level data, show some interesting variations. This paper will look into the spatial spread of new towns from a perspective of regional economy and attempt to provide some explanation of the wide-spread variation.
About five decades ago, the discipline of economics started its tryst with ‘growth models’. The s... more About five decades ago, the discipline of economics started its tryst with ‘growth models’. The search for a combination of K (capital) and L (labour) that would lead to an increase in Y (income) was the crux of these models, with different types of variation. But within few years, it was found that ‘growth’ may not benefit all the people, especially in the developing countries. And thus the concept of development arose – growth with redistribution – between the genders, among different occupations. It also meant access to not only higher income but to different amenities and institutions. In almost similar time, the concern for environment also started from the well-known Stockholm Conference in 1972. The ‘Club of Rome’ painted a dreadful picture of the Mother Earth - but that made her children conscious about their duty towards her. That took us to the concept of ‘sustainable development’. If we separate urban areas, we will see that they need some special treatment as far as sustainability is concerned. This is because of the predominance of ‘built-up’ areas, the presence and functioning of infrastructure become important. And the economic viability for maintenance of infrastructure becomes most important.
Women Empowerment and Gender Equity Some Perspectives, 2018
In any country, the women comprises half of the population and the labour force also reflects tha... more In any country, the women comprises half of the population and the labour force also reflects that. But the actual work participation of women varies across countries. This depends on many reasons- which are mostly sociological than economics. The literacy rate or other skills are surely factors in determining the participation rate but sometimes they are overpowered by the rules of the patriarchal society and religious diktats. India is one of the countries of the world with extremely low workforce participation rate for women. The average WFP for women by 2011 Census is around 30% with wide rural-urban disparity. With a high unemployment rate in the formal sector and more than 90% employment in the informal sector, most of the female employment is self-employment, officially termed as ‘own account workers’. This is also an underestimation knowing the fact women working in family enterprises are hardly enumerated or paid. One of the options would be to turn the women workers into entrepreneurs, so that they can not only earn for themselves but also provide for others.
This paper looks into the issues related to bringing out the entrepreneur out of the working women. The first section looks into the evidences of female work from Census data. The third section is based on primary data about women workers. The final section looks into possible solutions.
Review of a book on urbanism in the northeastern part of India . It also contains few other essay... more Review of a book on urbanism in the northeastern part of India . It also contains few other essays on other aspects of urban historiography. This is edited by Meeta Deka
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Papers by Mahalaya Chatterjee
a) All the settlements having any form of local government are called statutory towns;
b) Apart from these statutory towns, Census authority of India declares some areas as towns if they satisfy the following three criteria simultaneously:
i) size criterion: the population of the area must be at least 5000.
ii) density criterion: the density of population in the area should be at least 1000 persons per sq. kilometre.
iii) occupation criterion: at least 75 percent of the male workforce should be engaged in the non-agricultural activities.
Towns identified by the second criterion (b) are called census towns.
The average level of urbanisation hardly says anything about the regional diversity in urbanisation in the country. The smaller city states (e.g. Delhi, Chandigarh and Goa) have urbanisation level nearly 100 percent. Among the large states the highest level of urbanisation in the southern state of Tamil Nadu, followed by western states of Maharashtra and Gujarat. This regional diversity in the level (and also rate) of urbanisation partly resulted by the colonial legacy, partly by the forces affecting the process of urbanisation and partly by the post-independence experience of India in economic growth and development.
India was rightly designated as a ‘land of villages’ for a long time as a major part of its Gross Domestic Product came from primary sector and more than two-third of the population was engaged there. But the picture started to change after 1991, when the country started to move from the centrally planned model to the globalised-liberalised era. For the last twenty years, the growth in the country has been through the expansion of tertiary activities, especially the service sector. Now, more than 60% of the Gross Domestic Product is generated in the urban centres. The impact of such a change is manifested in the rate of urbanisation in the last decade. For the first time in the post-independence period, the rate of growth of urban population has surpassed their rural counterpart. Another manifestation is in the emergence of new census towns in the country. The last decade saw the emergence of more than 2500 new towns, which is more than the number that emerged in the preceding century (1901-2001). But a look into the state-level data, show some interesting variations. This paper will look into the spatial spread of new towns from a perspective of regional economy and attempt to provide some explanation of the wide-spread variation.
With a high unemployment rate in the formal sector and more than 90% employment in the informal sector, most of the female employment is self-employment, officially termed as ‘own account workers’. This is also an underestimation knowing the fact women working in family enterprises are hardly enumerated or paid. One of the options would be to turn the women workers into entrepreneurs, so that they can not only earn for themselves but also provide for others.
This paper looks into the issues related to bringing out the entrepreneur out of the working women. The first section looks into the evidences of female work from Census data. The third section is based on primary data about women workers. The final section looks into possible solutions.