Seismic precursors are an as yet unattained frontier in earthquake studies. With the aim of makin... more Seismic precursors are an as yet unattained frontier in earthquake studies. With the aim of making a step towards this frontier, we present a hydrogeochemical dataset associated with the 2016 Amatrice-Norcia seismic sequence (central Apennines, Italy), developed from August 24 th , with an M w 6.0 event, and culminating on October 30 th , with an M w 6.5 mainshock. The seismic sequence occurred during a seasonal depletion of hydrostructures, and the four strongest earthquakes (M w ≥ 5.5) generated an abrupt uplift of the water level, recorded up to 100 km away from the mainshock area. Monitoring a set of selected springs in the central Apennines, a few hydrogeochemical anomalies were observed months before the onset of the seismic swarm, including a variation of pH values and an increase of As, V, and Fe concentrations. Cr concentrations increased immediately after the onset of the seismic sequence. On November 2016, these elements recovered to their usual low concentrations. We interpret these geochemical anomalies as reliable seismic precursors for a dilational tectonic setting.
To determine the size range and both type and extent of the scaling laws for particles of loose n... more To determine the size range and both type and extent of the scaling laws for particles of loose natural carbonate fault rocks, six granular fault cores from Mesozoic carbonate strata of central Italy were sampled. Particle size distributions of twelve samples were determined by combining sieving and sedimentation methods. Results show that, regardless of the fault geometry, kinematics, and tectonic history, the size of fault rock particles respects a power law distribution across approximately four orders of magnitude. The fractal dimension (D) of the particle size distribution in the analysed samples ranges between ∼2.0 and ∼3.5. A lower bound to the power law trend is evident in all samples except in those with the highest D-values; in these samples, the smallest analysed particles (∼0.0005 mm in diameter) were also included in the power law interval, meaning that the lower size limit of the power law distribution decreases for increasing D-values and that smallest particles start to be comminuted with increasing strain (i.e. increasing fault displacement and D-values). For increasing D-values, also the largest particles tends to decrease in number, but this evidence may be affected by a censoring bias connected with the sample size. Stick-slip behaviour is suggested for the studied faults on the basis of the inferred particle size evolutions. Although further analyses are necessary to make the results of this study more generalizable, the preliminary definition of the scaling rules for fault rock particles may serve as a tool for predicting a large scale of fault rock particles once a limited range is known. In particular, data from this study may result useful as input numbers in numerical models addressing the packing of fault rock particles for frictional and hydraulic purposes.
Starting from Pliocene times, the Apulian foreland in southern Italy has undergone a flexural pro... more Starting from Pliocene times, the Apulian foreland in southern Italy has undergone a flexural process underneath the Apennines thrust-fold belt. Mesozoic carbonate beds from the exposed Apulian forebulge are intensely dissected by systematic vertical joints striking parallel to the NW-trending flexure hinge. The sedimentary cover involved in the flexure consists of a 5.5 km thick succession of Mesozoic-Cenozoic carbonate beds strongly interpenetrated along bedding surfaces and overlying Triassic anhydrites and dolomites. On the assumption of the applicability of the linear elastic theory, the flexural curve of the Apulian foreland is reconstructed by best fitting a set of data derived from logs of oil wells and referring to the height of the base of Pliocene sediments. A set of flexural parameters is obtained from the reconstructed flexural curve. By using these parameters in solving the flexure equations for the fibre stress, we obtained a flexure-related hinge-perpendicular fibre stress in the outer arc of the Apulian forebulge in excess of −100 MPa. This value is far greater than the tensile strength of the exposed carbonate rocks. This result supports the hypothesis that the flexure-related fibre stress in the Apulian forebulge can have driven the initiation of the observed regional systematic joints. This model may be applied to any flexed foreland plate and constitutes an alternative to the classical model of elastic response of rocks to the variations of lithostatic loads through time that has been often invoked to explain sets of systematic joints over large areas of foreland regions.
Fractures, karstic cavities, and calcite precipitates are analysed on Mesozoic, carbonate strata ... more Fractures, karstic cavities, and calcite precipitates are analysed on Mesozoic, carbonate strata from the Cornicolani Mountains, central Italy, to quantify the relationships between fractures and related karstic cavities and to infer the fracture-controlled fluid pathways. The study area is characterized by active sinkholes and other karstic caves, which are among the deepest ones in the world. Results show a clear control of fractures on the process of dissolutional weathering and, therefore, on the fluid circulation. A model is proposed, in which two different modes of dissolutional weathering coexist: (i) a mode of diffuse weathering consisting in the dissolutional enlargement of closely spaced joints and bedding surfaces. This process affects the strata situated at depths of up to 5 m; (ii) a mode of more concentrated weathering active along highly permeable fault damage zones at depths of at least 70 m. These processes are mostly connected with the shallow circulation of calcite-dissolving meteoric waters, and are controlled by the disparity of permeability between the fault damage zones and the surrounding jointed strata. Some calcite precipitates along the studied fault damage zones may be connected with a dissolutional process operated by waters that interacted with the adjacent quiescent volcanic district. Such calcite-dissolving waters and the presence of high-permeable fault damage zones, along which the waters may ascent, are probably the cause for the development of some of the deep sinkholes along faults in the study area.
ABSTRACT Laboratory experiments on rock faulting show that processes of particle comminution in f... more ABSTRACT Laboratory experiments on rock faulting show that processes of particle comminution in fault rocks are influenced by several parameters, including fault strike and normal stress across faults. In nature, normal stress across faults increases with increasing transpressional strike of faults. Accordingly, different structural fabrics and particle size distributions are expected for cataclastic rocks that have developed along faults with different transpressional orientations and comparable displacements within regional-scale strike-slip fault zones. Adjacent bands of cataclastic gouge and breccia were analysed from four small-scale fault zones. All have comparable displacements and very similar protolith (i.e. shallow-water limestone), structure, kinematics, size, and tectonic environment, but different transpressional strikes within the regional-scale left-lateral Mattinata strike-slip fault, Italy. An inverse linear relationship is found between fault transpressional angles and fractal dimensions of particle size distributions from cataclastic rock samples.
Contributions To Mineralogy and Petrology, Jan 1, 2007
Fluid–rock interaction was investigated in the inner aureole of the Late Miocene Monte Capanne pl... more Fluid–rock interaction was investigated in the inner aureole of the Late Miocene Monte Capanne pluton on Elba Island (Tuscany, central Italy) by integrating structural, petrological, fluid inclusion, and stable isotope analyses. In the north-western sector of the aureole (Procchio–Spartaia area), calc–silicates alternate with nearly pure carbonate layers at the metre scale. Close to the pluton, the prograde metamorphic sequence includes calc–silicates that transition within a few metres to overlying nearly pure calcite marbles. The calc–silicates are extensively metasomatised to form massive wollastonite-grossular-bearing exoskarn. The mineralogical assemblage found in the marbles and the unshifted carbon and oxygen isotopic ratios in calcite attest that the fluid phase was internally buffered. On the other hand, the calc–silicates constituted channels for infiltration of disequilibrium fluids of magmatic origin. Fluid infiltration was enhanced by hydrofracturing and structurally-controlled by existing planar anisotropies in calc–silicates (layering and lithological boundaries). At the metamorphic peak (∼600°C and 1.5–2 kbar), the marble–calc–silicate interface acted as a barrier to fluids exsolved from the crystallising intrusions, separating two different flow patterns in the inner aureole: a high fluid–flux region on its higher grade side (Wol-zone) and a low fluid–flux region on the lower-grade side (Cpx zone). Results of this study: (1) documented that fluid pathways in the aureole rocks at the top of the pluton were largely horizontal, controlled by the lithological layering and the pluton–host rock contact; and (2) elucidated the primary control exerted by the structural and rheological properties of the host rocks on the geometry of fluid flow during pluton emplacement.
... Apennines, Italy: evidence of mid-crustal folding. A. Billi 1 , MM Tiberti 2 , GP Cavinato 3 ... more ... Apennines, Italy: evidence of mid-crustal folding. A. Billi 1 , MM Tiberti 2 , GP Cavinato 3 , D. Cosentino 1 , E. Di Luzio 3 , JVA Keller 4 , C. Kluth 5 , L. Orlando 6 , M. Parotto 1 , A. Praturlon 1 , M. Romanelli 7 , F. Storti 1 & N. Wardell 7. ...
The deformation associated with a number of kilometre-scale strike-slip fault zones which cut thr... more The deformation associated with a number of kilometre-scale strike-slip fault zones which cut through outcropping carbonate rocks in the Southern Apennines was investigated at regional and outcrop scales. These faults trend roughly east-west and were studied at the Gargano Promontory on the Adriatic Coast (in the Apulian foreland) and in the Matese Mountains, about 120 km to the west (within the Apenninic fold-and-thrust belt). The fault zones are 200–300 m wide and typically comprise a core surrounded by a damage zone. Within fault cores, fault rocks (gouges and cataclasites) typically occur along master slip planes; in damage zones, secondary slip planes and solution cleavage are the most important planar discontinuities. The protolith carbonates surrounding the fault zone at Gargano show little deformation, but they are fractured in the Matese Mountains as a result of an earlier thrust phase.Cleavage surfaces in the damage zone of the studied faults are interpreted to be fault-propagation structures. Our field data indicate that cleavage-fault intersection lines are parallel to the normals of fault slip-vectors. The angle between a fault plane and the associated cleavage was found to be fairly constant (c. 40“) at different scales of observation. Finally, the spacing of the solution cleavage surfaces appeared in general to be regular (with a mean of about 22 mm), although it was found to decrease slightly near a fault plane. These results are intended to provide a basis for predicting the architecture of fault zones in buried carbonate reservoirs using seismic reflection and borehole data.
Through field and laboratory analyses, the cross-sectional structure and the grain size distribut... more Through field and laboratory analyses, the cross-sectional structure and the grain size distribution of 10 strike-slip fault cores less than 1 m thick were studied. The fault cores are exposed in Jurassic platform limestone within the Mattinata Fault zone located in the Adriatic–Apulian foreland of southern Italy. Each fault core consists of a breccia zone and a gouge zone, which differ in thickness and grain size distribution. Through the conventional sieving-and-weighting method, the grain size distribution of 20 samples of fault rocks was obtained. The distributions follow power-laws with fractal dimension (D) in the 2.00977–3.04008 range. Gouge D-values are proportional to the normalised thickness of the corresponding gouge zones. For a gouge D-value≈2.2, the thickness of the corresponding gouge zone is only about 3% of the fault core thickness, whereas for a gouge D-value≈3.0, the thickness of the corresponding gouge zone is almost 90% of the fault core thickness. Results from this study suggest that, with progressing fault displacement: (i) grain comminution in fault cores occurred mostly by early bulk fragmentation of grains and late grain abrasion; (ii) breccia zones were progressively incorporated into the adjacent gouge zones.
A priority task for correct environmental planningis to evaluate Natural Hazards, especially inhi... more A priority task for correct environmental planningis to evaluate Natural Hazards, especially inhighly populated areas. In particular, thoroughinvestigations based on different Earth Sciencetechniques must be addressed for the Seismic HazardAssessment (SHA) in tectonically active areas. Notonly the management but also the multidisciplinaryanalysis of all the SHA-related data sets is bestperformed using a Geographic Information System. In this paper we show how a research-oriented GIS isbuilt and used in a practical case. The GeochemicalGeographic Information System (G2IS) wasdeveloped and applied to the Gargano promontory(southern Italy) in the framework of an EC researchproject, the Geochemical Seismic Zonation (GSZ)Project. This multidisciplinary – multiscalingpowerful tool is described in its structure, updatingprocedures and manipulation techniques. Preliminaryresults are presented on the detection of geochemically active fault zones and theircorrelation with remote sensing data and otherevidences of seismogenic structures.
We present a set of relationships to determine the component of slip and separations generated by... more We present a set of relationships to determine the component of slip and separations generated by the cleavage-controlled volume contraction in strike-slip fault zones. The fault walls can translate toward each other along the (cleavage-normal) axis of maximum shortening as rock is dissolved by pressure solution along patterned cleavage surfaces within strike-slip fault zones. The fault zone shortening produces an ‘apparent slip’ and possible separations of reference stratigraphic surfaces across the fault zone. Solution related slip and separations can differ in magnitude and have either the same or the opposite sense. These discrepancies depend upon the amount of fault zone shortening and upon the angles between the fault and the shortening axis, and between the fault and the reference stratigraphic surface. Separations can be considerable at any scales even for very low amounts of fault zone thinning. Apparent slip can be appreciable for large amounts of fault zone thinning and/or high fault-to-cleavage incidence angles. With the proper geometrical conversions, the relationships here presented can apply to any fault type.The application of this technique to the left-lateral Mattinata Fault, Italy, demonstrated that both left- and right-lateral strike separations can occur along the fault even for low amounts of fault zone contraction by rock dissolution.
We present particle size data from 31 samples of carbonate cataclastic rocks collected across the... more We present particle size data from 31 samples of carbonate cataclastic rocks collected across the 26 m thick fault core of the Mattinata Fault in the foreland of the Southern Apennines, Italy. Particle size distributions of incoherent samples were determined by a sieving-and-weighting technique. The number of weight-equivalent spherical particles by size is well fitted by a power-law function on a log–log space. Fractal dimensions (D) of particle size distributions are in the 2.091–2.932 range and cluster around the value of ∼2.5. High D-values pertain to gouge in shear bands reworking the bulk cataclastic rocks of the fault core. Low D-values characterise immature cataclastic breccias. Intermediate D-values are typical of the bulk fault core. Analysis of the ratio between corresponding equivalent particle numbers from differently evolved cataclastic rocks indicates that the development of particle size distributions with D>2.6–2.7 occurred by a preferential relative increase of fine particles rather than a selective decrement of coarse particles. This preferentially occurred in shear bands where intense comminution enhanced by slip localisation progressed by rolling of coarse particles whose consequent smoothing produced a large number of fine particles. Our data suggest that during the progression of cataclasis, the fragmentation mode changed from the Allègre et al.'s [Nature 297 (1982) 47] “pillar of strength” mechanism in the early evolutionary stages, to the Sammis et al.'s [Pure and Applied Geophysics 125 (1987) 777] “constrained comminution” mechanism in the subsequent stages of cataclasis. Eventually, localised shear bands developed mainly by abrasion of coarse particles.
Particle size distributions of cataclastic rocks influence the mechanical and fluid flow behaviou... more Particle size distributions of cataclastic rocks influence the mechanical and fluid flow behaviour of fault zones. Available data from natural cataclastic rocks are still controversial and do not fully support a self-similar evolution for the cataclastic process, a concept derived from laboratory experiments and micromechanical modelling. Our analyses of particle size in carbonate fault rocks show power law distributions with fractal dimensions spanning a broad range. This confirms that the idea of a persistent fragmentation mechanism for describing the entire evolution of natural cataclastic fault cores in carbonate rocks is inadequate. Conversely, we propose that the fragmentation mechanism progressively changes with the intensity of comminution. Slip localisation within narrow shear bands is favoured when a favourable cataclastic fabric with fractal dimensions D ∼2.6–2.7 is achieved in the fault zone. Intense comminution in the narrow shear zones produces the preferential formation of small diameter particles resulting in particle size distributions characterised by D values approaching or exceeding 3. The non-self-similar evolution of natural cataclastic rocks has an important impact on the frictional and permeability properties of fault zones.
We studied the nucleation and growth of cataclastic fault cores from fractured damage zones in ex... more We studied the nucleation and growth of cataclastic fault cores from fractured damage zones in extensional and strike-slip fault zones in carbonate rocks. Analysed fault zones have similar protolith lithology and sedimentary fabric, but different geometry, kinematics, size, tectonic environment and deformation history. Orthorhombic rock lithons, a few decimetres in size, characterise the structural fabric of damage zones. Lithons derive from the intersection of a dominant fracture/cleavage set with bedding and/or joints. At the damage zone–fault core transition, orthorhombic lithons reduce in size and approach an isometric shape. Their cross-sectional aspect ratio has an average value of 1.4. Analysed fault cores have similar rock textures, sorting and comminution degree. Particle-size distributions of fault core rocks show linear trends in log-log graphs and average fractal dimension of 2.5. Our results on rock fabrics suggest that fault core development initiates from rock masses in damage zones, where the shape anisotropy of orthorhombic lithons favours additional fracturing at high angle to their long axes. Eventually, smaller, nearly isometric lithons generate from repeated fracturing of orthorhombic lithons. When the aspect ratio of these lithons approaches the threshold value of about 1.4, particle rotation is favoured and cataclastic flow starts. Owing to the granular nature of the damage zone-fault core transitions in carbonate rocks, analogies with the nucleation of deformation bands in sandstones can be established. Our results may be of use to the industry for quantitative characterisation of fault zone permeability. According to the proposed model, radical changes on the permeability properties are expected during the growth of fault cores.
Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, Jan 1, 2003
During the July–August 2001 eruption of Mt. Etna development of extensional fractures/faults and ... more During the July–August 2001 eruption of Mt. Etna development of extensional fractures/faults and grabens accompanied magma intrusion and subsequent volcanic activity. During the first days of the eruption, we performed an analysis of attitude, displacement and propagation of fractures and faults exposed on the ground surface in two sites, Torre del Filosofo and Valle del Leone, located along the same fracture system in the region surrounding the Valle del Bove depression on the eastern flank of Mt. Etna. Fractures and faults formed as the consequence of a shallow intruding dyke system that fed the several volcanic centres developed along the fracture system. The investigated sites differ in slope attitude and in geometrical relationships between fractures and slopes. In particular, the fracture system propagated parallel to the gentle slope (<7° dip) in the Torre del Filosofo area, and perpendicular to the steep slope (∼25° dip) in the Valle del Leone area. In the Torre del Filosofo area, slight graben subsidence and horizontal extension of the ground surface by about 3 m were recorded. In the Valle del Leone area, extensional faulting forming a larger and deeper graben with horizontal extension of the ground surface by about 10 m was recorded. For the Valle del Leone area, we assessed a downhill dip of 14° for the graben master fault at the structural level beneath the graben where the fault dip shallows. These results suggest that dyke intrusion at Mount Etna, and particularly in the region surrounding the Valle del Bove depression, may be at the origin of slope failure and subsequent slumps where boundary conditions, i.e. geometry of dyke, slope dip and initial shear stress, amongst others, favour incipient failures.
Seismic precursors are an as yet unattained frontier in earthquake studies. With the aim of makin... more Seismic precursors are an as yet unattained frontier in earthquake studies. With the aim of making a step towards this frontier, we present a hydrogeochemical dataset associated with the 2016 Amatrice-Norcia seismic sequence (central Apennines, Italy), developed from August 24 th , with an M w 6.0 event, and culminating on October 30 th , with an M w 6.5 mainshock. The seismic sequence occurred during a seasonal depletion of hydrostructures, and the four strongest earthquakes (M w ≥ 5.5) generated an abrupt uplift of the water level, recorded up to 100 km away from the mainshock area. Monitoring a set of selected springs in the central Apennines, a few hydrogeochemical anomalies were observed months before the onset of the seismic swarm, including a variation of pH values and an increase of As, V, and Fe concentrations. Cr concentrations increased immediately after the onset of the seismic sequence. On November 2016, these elements recovered to their usual low concentrations. We interpret these geochemical anomalies as reliable seismic precursors for a dilational tectonic setting.
To determine the size range and both type and extent of the scaling laws for particles of loose n... more To determine the size range and both type and extent of the scaling laws for particles of loose natural carbonate fault rocks, six granular fault cores from Mesozoic carbonate strata of central Italy were sampled. Particle size distributions of twelve samples were determined by combining sieving and sedimentation methods. Results show that, regardless of the fault geometry, kinematics, and tectonic history, the size of fault rock particles respects a power law distribution across approximately four orders of magnitude. The fractal dimension (D) of the particle size distribution in the analysed samples ranges between ∼2.0 and ∼3.5. A lower bound to the power law trend is evident in all samples except in those with the highest D-values; in these samples, the smallest analysed particles (∼0.0005 mm in diameter) were also included in the power law interval, meaning that the lower size limit of the power law distribution decreases for increasing D-values and that smallest particles start to be comminuted with increasing strain (i.e. increasing fault displacement and D-values). For increasing D-values, also the largest particles tends to decrease in number, but this evidence may be affected by a censoring bias connected with the sample size. Stick-slip behaviour is suggested for the studied faults on the basis of the inferred particle size evolutions. Although further analyses are necessary to make the results of this study more generalizable, the preliminary definition of the scaling rules for fault rock particles may serve as a tool for predicting a large scale of fault rock particles once a limited range is known. In particular, data from this study may result useful as input numbers in numerical models addressing the packing of fault rock particles for frictional and hydraulic purposes.
Starting from Pliocene times, the Apulian foreland in southern Italy has undergone a flexural pro... more Starting from Pliocene times, the Apulian foreland in southern Italy has undergone a flexural process underneath the Apennines thrust-fold belt. Mesozoic carbonate beds from the exposed Apulian forebulge are intensely dissected by systematic vertical joints striking parallel to the NW-trending flexure hinge. The sedimentary cover involved in the flexure consists of a 5.5 km thick succession of Mesozoic-Cenozoic carbonate beds strongly interpenetrated along bedding surfaces and overlying Triassic anhydrites and dolomites. On the assumption of the applicability of the linear elastic theory, the flexural curve of the Apulian foreland is reconstructed by best fitting a set of data derived from logs of oil wells and referring to the height of the base of Pliocene sediments. A set of flexural parameters is obtained from the reconstructed flexural curve. By using these parameters in solving the flexure equations for the fibre stress, we obtained a flexure-related hinge-perpendicular fibre stress in the outer arc of the Apulian forebulge in excess of −100 MPa. This value is far greater than the tensile strength of the exposed carbonate rocks. This result supports the hypothesis that the flexure-related fibre stress in the Apulian forebulge can have driven the initiation of the observed regional systematic joints. This model may be applied to any flexed foreland plate and constitutes an alternative to the classical model of elastic response of rocks to the variations of lithostatic loads through time that has been often invoked to explain sets of systematic joints over large areas of foreland regions.
Fractures, karstic cavities, and calcite precipitates are analysed on Mesozoic, carbonate strata ... more Fractures, karstic cavities, and calcite precipitates are analysed on Mesozoic, carbonate strata from the Cornicolani Mountains, central Italy, to quantify the relationships between fractures and related karstic cavities and to infer the fracture-controlled fluid pathways. The study area is characterized by active sinkholes and other karstic caves, which are among the deepest ones in the world. Results show a clear control of fractures on the process of dissolutional weathering and, therefore, on the fluid circulation. A model is proposed, in which two different modes of dissolutional weathering coexist: (i) a mode of diffuse weathering consisting in the dissolutional enlargement of closely spaced joints and bedding surfaces. This process affects the strata situated at depths of up to 5 m; (ii) a mode of more concentrated weathering active along highly permeable fault damage zones at depths of at least 70 m. These processes are mostly connected with the shallow circulation of calcite-dissolving meteoric waters, and are controlled by the disparity of permeability between the fault damage zones and the surrounding jointed strata. Some calcite precipitates along the studied fault damage zones may be connected with a dissolutional process operated by waters that interacted with the adjacent quiescent volcanic district. Such calcite-dissolving waters and the presence of high-permeable fault damage zones, along which the waters may ascent, are probably the cause for the development of some of the deep sinkholes along faults in the study area.
ABSTRACT Laboratory experiments on rock faulting show that processes of particle comminution in f... more ABSTRACT Laboratory experiments on rock faulting show that processes of particle comminution in fault rocks are influenced by several parameters, including fault strike and normal stress across faults. In nature, normal stress across faults increases with increasing transpressional strike of faults. Accordingly, different structural fabrics and particle size distributions are expected for cataclastic rocks that have developed along faults with different transpressional orientations and comparable displacements within regional-scale strike-slip fault zones. Adjacent bands of cataclastic gouge and breccia were analysed from four small-scale fault zones. All have comparable displacements and very similar protolith (i.e. shallow-water limestone), structure, kinematics, size, and tectonic environment, but different transpressional strikes within the regional-scale left-lateral Mattinata strike-slip fault, Italy. An inverse linear relationship is found between fault transpressional angles and fractal dimensions of particle size distributions from cataclastic rock samples.
Contributions To Mineralogy and Petrology, Jan 1, 2007
Fluid–rock interaction was investigated in the inner aureole of the Late Miocene Monte Capanne pl... more Fluid–rock interaction was investigated in the inner aureole of the Late Miocene Monte Capanne pluton on Elba Island (Tuscany, central Italy) by integrating structural, petrological, fluid inclusion, and stable isotope analyses. In the north-western sector of the aureole (Procchio–Spartaia area), calc–silicates alternate with nearly pure carbonate layers at the metre scale. Close to the pluton, the prograde metamorphic sequence includes calc–silicates that transition within a few metres to overlying nearly pure calcite marbles. The calc–silicates are extensively metasomatised to form massive wollastonite-grossular-bearing exoskarn. The mineralogical assemblage found in the marbles and the unshifted carbon and oxygen isotopic ratios in calcite attest that the fluid phase was internally buffered. On the other hand, the calc–silicates constituted channels for infiltration of disequilibrium fluids of magmatic origin. Fluid infiltration was enhanced by hydrofracturing and structurally-controlled by existing planar anisotropies in calc–silicates (layering and lithological boundaries). At the metamorphic peak (∼600°C and 1.5–2 kbar), the marble–calc–silicate interface acted as a barrier to fluids exsolved from the crystallising intrusions, separating two different flow patterns in the inner aureole: a high fluid–flux region on its higher grade side (Wol-zone) and a low fluid–flux region on the lower-grade side (Cpx zone). Results of this study: (1) documented that fluid pathways in the aureole rocks at the top of the pluton were largely horizontal, controlled by the lithological layering and the pluton–host rock contact; and (2) elucidated the primary control exerted by the structural and rheological properties of the host rocks on the geometry of fluid flow during pluton emplacement.
... Apennines, Italy: evidence of mid-crustal folding. A. Billi 1 , MM Tiberti 2 , GP Cavinato 3 ... more ... Apennines, Italy: evidence of mid-crustal folding. A. Billi 1 , MM Tiberti 2 , GP Cavinato 3 , D. Cosentino 1 , E. Di Luzio 3 , JVA Keller 4 , C. Kluth 5 , L. Orlando 6 , M. Parotto 1 , A. Praturlon 1 , M. Romanelli 7 , F. Storti 1 &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp; N. Wardell 7. ...
The deformation associated with a number of kilometre-scale strike-slip fault zones which cut thr... more The deformation associated with a number of kilometre-scale strike-slip fault zones which cut through outcropping carbonate rocks in the Southern Apennines was investigated at regional and outcrop scales. These faults trend roughly east-west and were studied at the Gargano Promontory on the Adriatic Coast (in the Apulian foreland) and in the Matese Mountains, about 120 km to the west (within the Apenninic fold-and-thrust belt). The fault zones are 200–300 m wide and typically comprise a core surrounded by a damage zone. Within fault cores, fault rocks (gouges and cataclasites) typically occur along master slip planes; in damage zones, secondary slip planes and solution cleavage are the most important planar discontinuities. The protolith carbonates surrounding the fault zone at Gargano show little deformation, but they are fractured in the Matese Mountains as a result of an earlier thrust phase.Cleavage surfaces in the damage zone of the studied faults are interpreted to be fault-propagation structures. Our field data indicate that cleavage-fault intersection lines are parallel to the normals of fault slip-vectors. The angle between a fault plane and the associated cleavage was found to be fairly constant (c. 40“) at different scales of observation. Finally, the spacing of the solution cleavage surfaces appeared in general to be regular (with a mean of about 22 mm), although it was found to decrease slightly near a fault plane. These results are intended to provide a basis for predicting the architecture of fault zones in buried carbonate reservoirs using seismic reflection and borehole data.
Through field and laboratory analyses, the cross-sectional structure and the grain size distribut... more Through field and laboratory analyses, the cross-sectional structure and the grain size distribution of 10 strike-slip fault cores less than 1 m thick were studied. The fault cores are exposed in Jurassic platform limestone within the Mattinata Fault zone located in the Adriatic–Apulian foreland of southern Italy. Each fault core consists of a breccia zone and a gouge zone, which differ in thickness and grain size distribution. Through the conventional sieving-and-weighting method, the grain size distribution of 20 samples of fault rocks was obtained. The distributions follow power-laws with fractal dimension (D) in the 2.00977–3.04008 range. Gouge D-values are proportional to the normalised thickness of the corresponding gouge zones. For a gouge D-value≈2.2, the thickness of the corresponding gouge zone is only about 3% of the fault core thickness, whereas for a gouge D-value≈3.0, the thickness of the corresponding gouge zone is almost 90% of the fault core thickness. Results from this study suggest that, with progressing fault displacement: (i) grain comminution in fault cores occurred mostly by early bulk fragmentation of grains and late grain abrasion; (ii) breccia zones were progressively incorporated into the adjacent gouge zones.
A priority task for correct environmental planningis to evaluate Natural Hazards, especially inhi... more A priority task for correct environmental planningis to evaluate Natural Hazards, especially inhighly populated areas. In particular, thoroughinvestigations based on different Earth Sciencetechniques must be addressed for the Seismic HazardAssessment (SHA) in tectonically active areas. Notonly the management but also the multidisciplinaryanalysis of all the SHA-related data sets is bestperformed using a Geographic Information System. In this paper we show how a research-oriented GIS isbuilt and used in a practical case. The GeochemicalGeographic Information System (G2IS) wasdeveloped and applied to the Gargano promontory(southern Italy) in the framework of an EC researchproject, the Geochemical Seismic Zonation (GSZ)Project. This multidisciplinary – multiscalingpowerful tool is described in its structure, updatingprocedures and manipulation techniques. Preliminaryresults are presented on the detection of geochemically active fault zones and theircorrelation with remote sensing data and otherevidences of seismogenic structures.
We present a set of relationships to determine the component of slip and separations generated by... more We present a set of relationships to determine the component of slip and separations generated by the cleavage-controlled volume contraction in strike-slip fault zones. The fault walls can translate toward each other along the (cleavage-normal) axis of maximum shortening as rock is dissolved by pressure solution along patterned cleavage surfaces within strike-slip fault zones. The fault zone shortening produces an ‘apparent slip’ and possible separations of reference stratigraphic surfaces across the fault zone. Solution related slip and separations can differ in magnitude and have either the same or the opposite sense. These discrepancies depend upon the amount of fault zone shortening and upon the angles between the fault and the shortening axis, and between the fault and the reference stratigraphic surface. Separations can be considerable at any scales even for very low amounts of fault zone thinning. Apparent slip can be appreciable for large amounts of fault zone thinning and/or high fault-to-cleavage incidence angles. With the proper geometrical conversions, the relationships here presented can apply to any fault type.The application of this technique to the left-lateral Mattinata Fault, Italy, demonstrated that both left- and right-lateral strike separations can occur along the fault even for low amounts of fault zone contraction by rock dissolution.
We present particle size data from 31 samples of carbonate cataclastic rocks collected across the... more We present particle size data from 31 samples of carbonate cataclastic rocks collected across the 26 m thick fault core of the Mattinata Fault in the foreland of the Southern Apennines, Italy. Particle size distributions of incoherent samples were determined by a sieving-and-weighting technique. The number of weight-equivalent spherical particles by size is well fitted by a power-law function on a log–log space. Fractal dimensions (D) of particle size distributions are in the 2.091–2.932 range and cluster around the value of ∼2.5. High D-values pertain to gouge in shear bands reworking the bulk cataclastic rocks of the fault core. Low D-values characterise immature cataclastic breccias. Intermediate D-values are typical of the bulk fault core. Analysis of the ratio between corresponding equivalent particle numbers from differently evolved cataclastic rocks indicates that the development of particle size distributions with D>2.6–2.7 occurred by a preferential relative increase of fine particles rather than a selective decrement of coarse particles. This preferentially occurred in shear bands where intense comminution enhanced by slip localisation progressed by rolling of coarse particles whose consequent smoothing produced a large number of fine particles. Our data suggest that during the progression of cataclasis, the fragmentation mode changed from the Allègre et al.'s [Nature 297 (1982) 47] “pillar of strength” mechanism in the early evolutionary stages, to the Sammis et al.'s [Pure and Applied Geophysics 125 (1987) 777] “constrained comminution” mechanism in the subsequent stages of cataclasis. Eventually, localised shear bands developed mainly by abrasion of coarse particles.
Particle size distributions of cataclastic rocks influence the mechanical and fluid flow behaviou... more Particle size distributions of cataclastic rocks influence the mechanical and fluid flow behaviour of fault zones. Available data from natural cataclastic rocks are still controversial and do not fully support a self-similar evolution for the cataclastic process, a concept derived from laboratory experiments and micromechanical modelling. Our analyses of particle size in carbonate fault rocks show power law distributions with fractal dimensions spanning a broad range. This confirms that the idea of a persistent fragmentation mechanism for describing the entire evolution of natural cataclastic fault cores in carbonate rocks is inadequate. Conversely, we propose that the fragmentation mechanism progressively changes with the intensity of comminution. Slip localisation within narrow shear bands is favoured when a favourable cataclastic fabric with fractal dimensions D ∼2.6–2.7 is achieved in the fault zone. Intense comminution in the narrow shear zones produces the preferential formation of small diameter particles resulting in particle size distributions characterised by D values approaching or exceeding 3. The non-self-similar evolution of natural cataclastic rocks has an important impact on the frictional and permeability properties of fault zones.
We studied the nucleation and growth of cataclastic fault cores from fractured damage zones in ex... more We studied the nucleation and growth of cataclastic fault cores from fractured damage zones in extensional and strike-slip fault zones in carbonate rocks. Analysed fault zones have similar protolith lithology and sedimentary fabric, but different geometry, kinematics, size, tectonic environment and deformation history. Orthorhombic rock lithons, a few decimetres in size, characterise the structural fabric of damage zones. Lithons derive from the intersection of a dominant fracture/cleavage set with bedding and/or joints. At the damage zone–fault core transition, orthorhombic lithons reduce in size and approach an isometric shape. Their cross-sectional aspect ratio has an average value of 1.4. Analysed fault cores have similar rock textures, sorting and comminution degree. Particle-size distributions of fault core rocks show linear trends in log-log graphs and average fractal dimension of 2.5. Our results on rock fabrics suggest that fault core development initiates from rock masses in damage zones, where the shape anisotropy of orthorhombic lithons favours additional fracturing at high angle to their long axes. Eventually, smaller, nearly isometric lithons generate from repeated fracturing of orthorhombic lithons. When the aspect ratio of these lithons approaches the threshold value of about 1.4, particle rotation is favoured and cataclastic flow starts. Owing to the granular nature of the damage zone-fault core transitions in carbonate rocks, analogies with the nucleation of deformation bands in sandstones can be established. Our results may be of use to the industry for quantitative characterisation of fault zone permeability. According to the proposed model, radical changes on the permeability properties are expected during the growth of fault cores.
Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, Jan 1, 2003
During the July–August 2001 eruption of Mt. Etna development of extensional fractures/faults and ... more During the July–August 2001 eruption of Mt. Etna development of extensional fractures/faults and grabens accompanied magma intrusion and subsequent volcanic activity. During the first days of the eruption, we performed an analysis of attitude, displacement and propagation of fractures and faults exposed on the ground surface in two sites, Torre del Filosofo and Valle del Leone, located along the same fracture system in the region surrounding the Valle del Bove depression on the eastern flank of Mt. Etna. Fractures and faults formed as the consequence of a shallow intruding dyke system that fed the several volcanic centres developed along the fracture system. The investigated sites differ in slope attitude and in geometrical relationships between fractures and slopes. In particular, the fracture system propagated parallel to the gentle slope (<7° dip) in the Torre del Filosofo area, and perpendicular to the steep slope (∼25° dip) in the Valle del Leone area. In the Torre del Filosofo area, slight graben subsidence and horizontal extension of the ground surface by about 3 m were recorded. In the Valle del Leone area, extensional faulting forming a larger and deeper graben with horizontal extension of the ground surface by about 10 m was recorded. For the Valle del Leone area, we assessed a downhill dip of 14° for the graben master fault at the structural level beneath the graben where the fault dip shallows. These results suggest that dyke intrusion at Mount Etna, and particularly in the region surrounding the Valle del Bove depression, may be at the origin of slope failure and subsequent slumps where boundary conditions, i.e. geometry of dyke, slope dip and initial shear stress, amongst others, favour incipient failures.
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