Line losses ill transmission lilies constitute one of the llllljor problt!llls affecting power ge... more Line losses ill transmission lilies constitute one of the llllljor problt!llls affecting power generation and distribution systems. Losses luwe beelt foulld to affect the overall ejJidency of a system. Therefore, to illcretUe the efficiency of any system, losses must be minimized, This paper carried out a comprehensive study alld analym of line losses associated with Nigeritz 330-kV power transmission lines. The work includes the power-flow analysis carrid out on the existilfg Mtwork using both the Newton-Rapltson (N-R)wrltten in code-btlsed MATLAB a1ld the model-based N-R ill Power World Simulator (PWS) environment. The power-flow analysis HillS further subjected to contingency analysis and silllukdion using the N-R in PWS. Two 101111-flows were performed to reveal voltage violated buses.The resulb showed that the bus voltages outsith the statutory limit of 0.95- 1.05p.u(i.e 313.5 - 346.5kV) occurred at buses2-Bimi1JKebbi (0.9183pu), bus 9 Akangba (0.937pu), bus 18-0nitslul (0.935p...
International Journal of Renewable Energy Research, 2013
A potential solution to adequate and sustainable electricity supply problems in most developing c... more A potential solution to adequate and sustainable electricity supply problems in most developing countries is dependent on proper harnessing of solar (radiant) energy. Owing to the over dependence on fossil-fuel based energy, there is an exponential rise in carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions into the atmosphere, thereby causing severe environmental degradation and ozone layer depletion. This paper seeks to apply the readily available radiant energy source to solar water heating, and establish possible economic benefits to its use in domestic applications for residents of Covenant University campus. The microcontroller-based active solar water heating system (ASWHS) is designed to effectively absorb radiant energy using solar collectors, and store it as hot water in a water tank via a direct current (DC) circulation pump powered by a stand-alone photovoltaic (PV) system. The design also incorporates an auxiliary electric heater which is put to use only when there is insufficient radiant e...
An Automatic Transfer Switch (ATS) for a single phase power generator has been designed to enable... more An Automatic Transfer Switch (ATS) for a single phase power generator has been designed to enable the automatic operation and transfer of power supply between a public utility supply and a power generator. The ATS, which is a switchgear control system, provides a functional system that provides an automatic switching of power supply between a primary source (public utility) and a secondary power source (generator). The methods employed in designing the ATS involve the use of electromechanical type relays, contactors, voltage monitoring relays and delay timer relays as main components of the system. Incorporated in the ATS is a digital multimeter (DMM) made up of a 12V d.c and a 5V d.c power supply unit, precision rectifier unit, current transformer and Microcontroller (PIC 16F877) to convert the measured analogue alternating current(a.c). voltage and current quantities to digital values for display on the liquid crystal display (LCD). The result of the automatic transfer switch demonstrates its ability to perform automatic power change over activities easily and with little or no human interaction
The deregulation of the Nigerian power sector has resulted in the quest to explore power generati... more The deregulation of the Nigerian power sector has resulted in the quest to explore power generation options for power quality improvement. One of such options is the pattern shift from central power generation to embedded power generation. Network integration of embedded generators (EGs) causes several regulatory, technical and economic issues. This research focuses on power quality challenges that may arise as a result of network integration of embedded generation in a weak electricity networks using Ogba 33 kV injection substation as case study. The embedded generators considered comprised of gas turbine and diesel generators. NEPLAN software was used to perform the load flow analysis with and without EGs connection on the network. This was necessary so as to ascertain the healthiness of the existing distribution network for EGs integration. The power quality issues considered in the study were bus voltage profiles and the total line losses. Simulation results showed that EGs conn...
Energy is indispensable to human existence, and its need is on the increase daily due to technolo... more Energy is indispensable to human existence, and its need is on the increase daily due to technological advancement. In recent times, there is sporadic increase in the development of modern buildings, and these buildings require a cost-effective and sustainable source of energy. Nigeria and some other African countries have major energy shortage issues due to the insufficient power generation and distribution facilities. This energy poverty creates a challenge for the growing population, and as such, it is vital to ensure that the energy supplied to a building is duly optimized and delivered cost effectively. In this study, an energy audit of an eight-floor multipurpose business complex was performed to determine the nature and type of loads within the building. Based on the load profile and energy consumption over a 10-year period, three alternative energy sources (national grid, diesel generator and photovoltaic [PV] system) were considered using various load-sharing ratios. The re...
An Automatic Transfer Switch (ATS) for a single phase power generator has been designed to enable... more An Automatic Transfer Switch (ATS) for a single phase power generator has been designed to enable the automatic operation and transfer of power supply between a public utility supply and a power generator. The ATS, which is a switchgear control system, provides a functional system that provides an automatic switching of power supply between a primary source (public utility) and a secondary power source (generator). The methods employed in designing the ATS involve the use of electromechanical type relays, contactors, voltage monitoring relays and delay timer relays as main components of the system. Incorporated in the ATS is a digital multimeter (DMM) made up of a 12V d.c and a 5V d.c power supply unit, precision rectifier unit, current transformer and Microcontroller (PIC 16F877) to convert the measured analogue alternating current(a.c). voltage and current quantities to digital values for display on the liquid crystal display (LCD). The result of the automatic transfer switch demonstrates its ability to perform automatic power change over activities easily and with little or no human interaction.
This paper presents the use of a novel approach in assessing the generation reliability of a hybr... more This paper presents the use of a novel approach in assessing the generation reliability of a hybrid mini-grid system (HMS) based on the optimal design result obtained from the HOMER software. A typical Nigerian rural community -Lade II in Kwara State was used as a case study where the energy demand for the residential and commercial loads was 2.5MWh/day and 171kWh/day respectively. The optimized HMS results from HOMER comprising of a solar photovoltaic (PV) array (1.5MW), diesel generators (350kW) and battery storage (1200 units) has a combined least net present cost of $4,909,206 and a levelized electricity tariff of $0.396 per kWh. Contrasting the HMS with a diesel-only system for the community, an approximate 97% reduction in all pollutant emissions was observed. Furthermore, fluctuations in diesel fuel prices, variations in average solar insolation, and variations in the solar PV's capital/replacement costs were utilized in conducting a sensitivity analysis for the HMS. The capacity outage probability table (COPT) was utilized in validating the reliability of the simulation results obtained from HOMER. The HMS was observed to experience a load loss of 0.769MW, 0.594MW & 0.419MW when zero, one and two diesel generator(s) respectively were operational for all of the Solar PV's and Batteries being off-line. The loss of load probability (LOLP), loss of load expectation (LOLE), and total expected load loss (ELL) obtained from the COPT were 5.76 Â 10 À8 , 5.0457 Â 10 À4 hr/yr and 0.025344Watt respectively. The results show the reliability of the HMS and also depicts a highly economical and feasible hybrid energy system.
A potential solution to adequate and sustainable electricity supply problems in most ... more A potential solution to adequate and sustainable electricity supply problems in most developing countries is
dependent on proper harnessing of solar (radiant) energy. Owing to the over dependence o n fossil-fuel based energy, there is
an exponential rise in carbon dioxide (CO
2
) emissions into the atmosphere, thereby causing severe environmental degradation
and ozone layer depletion. This paper seeks to apply the readily available radiant energy source to solar water heating, and
establish possible economic benefits to its use in domestic applications for residents of Covenant University campus. The
microcontroller-based active solar water heating system (ASWHS) is designed to effectively absorb radiant energy using solar
collectors, and store it as hot water in a water tank via a direct current (DC) circulation pump powered by a stand-alone
photovoltaic (PV) system. The design also incorporates an auxiliary electric heater which is put to use only when there is
insufficient radiant energy. A case study is reported to show the importance of the ASWHS for domestic water heating. The
maximum design efficiency and the expected energy output of the solar collector throughout its working life is 79.94% and
498,225kWh respectively. A reduced dependence on grid supply and/or fossil-fuel based generator sets during hot water
demand periods is recorded using the ASWHS with a high payback period of 15 years; and a lower unit cost (US$0.01/kWh)
of the ASWHS makes it more economically viable as compared to the unit cost (US$0.18/kWh) of the grid supply for the same
amount of energy consumed.
Keywords- ASWHS, CO2 emissions, microcontroller, solar energy, solar collector, unit cost.
A potential solution to adequate and sustainable electricity supply problems in most developing c... more A potential solution to adequate and sustainable electricity supply problems in most developing countries is dependent on proper harnessing of solar (radiant) energy. Owing to the over dependence on fossil-fuel based energy, there is an exponential rise in carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions into the atmosphere, thereby causing severe environmental degradation and ozone layer depletion. This paper seeks to apply the readily available radiant energy source to solar water heating, and establish possible economic benefits to its use in domestic applications for residents of Covenant University campus. The microcontroller-based active solar water heating system (ASWHS) is designed to effectively absorb radiant energy using solar collectors, and store it as hot water in a water tank via a direct current (DC) circulation pump powered by a stand-alone photovoltaic (PV) system. The design also incorporates an auxiliary electric heater which is put to use only when there is insufficient radiant energy. A case study is reported to show the importance of the ASWHS for domestic water heating. The maximum design efficiency and the expected energy output of the solar collector throughout its working life is 79.94% and 498,225kWh respectively. A reduced dependence on grid supply and/or fossil-fuel based generator sets during hot water demand periods is recorded using the ASWHS with a high payback period of 15 years; and a lower unit cost (US$0.01/kWh) of the ASWHS makes it more economically viable as compared to the unit cost (US$0.18/kWh) of the grid supply for the same amount of energy consumed.
A distribution grid is generally characterized by a high R/X (resistance/reactance) ratio and it ... more A distribution grid is generally characterized by a high R/X (resistance/reactance) ratio and it is radial in nature. By design, a distribution grid system is not an active network, and it is normally designed in such a way that power flows from transmission system via distribution system to consumers. But in a situation when wind turbines are connected to the distribution grid, the power source will change from one source to two sources, in this case, network is said to be active. This may probably have an impact on the distribution grid to whenever the wind turbine is connected. The best way to know the impact of wind turbine on the distribution grid in question is by carrying out load flow analysis on that system with and without the connection of wind turbines. Two major fundamental calculations: the steady-state voltage variation at the PCC (point of common coupling) and the calculation of short-circuit power of the grid system at the POC (point of connection) are necessary before carrying out the load flow study on the distribution grid. This paper, therefore, considers these pre-load flow calculations that are necessary before carrying out load flow study on the test distribution grid. These calculations are carried out on a test distribution system.
Line losses ill transmission lilies constitute one of the llllljor problt!llls affecting power ge... more Line losses ill transmission lilies constitute one of the llllljor problt!llls affecting power generation and distribution systems. Losses luwe beelt foulld to affect the overall ejJidency of a system. Therefore, to illcretUe the efficiency of any system, losses must be minimized, This paper carried out a comprehensive study alld analym of line losses associated with Nigeritz 330-kV power transmission lines. The work includes the power-flow analysis carrid out on the existilfg Mtwork using both the Newton-Rapltson (N-R)wrltten in code-btlsed MATLAB a1ld the model-based N-R ill Power World Simulator (PWS) environment. The power-flow analysis HillS further subjected to contingency analysis and silllukdion using the N-R in PWS. Two 101111-flows were performed to reveal voltage violated buses.The resulb showed that the bus voltages outsith the statutory limit of 0.95- 1.05p.u(i.e 313.5 - 346.5kV) occurred at buses2-Bimi1JKebbi (0.9183pu), bus 9 Akangba (0.937pu), bus 18-0nitslul (0.935p...
International Journal of Renewable Energy Research, 2013
A potential solution to adequate and sustainable electricity supply problems in most developing c... more A potential solution to adequate and sustainable electricity supply problems in most developing countries is dependent on proper harnessing of solar (radiant) energy. Owing to the over dependence on fossil-fuel based energy, there is an exponential rise in carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions into the atmosphere, thereby causing severe environmental degradation and ozone layer depletion. This paper seeks to apply the readily available radiant energy source to solar water heating, and establish possible economic benefits to its use in domestic applications for residents of Covenant University campus. The microcontroller-based active solar water heating system (ASWHS) is designed to effectively absorb radiant energy using solar collectors, and store it as hot water in a water tank via a direct current (DC) circulation pump powered by a stand-alone photovoltaic (PV) system. The design also incorporates an auxiliary electric heater which is put to use only when there is insufficient radiant e...
An Automatic Transfer Switch (ATS) for a single phase power generator has been designed to enable... more An Automatic Transfer Switch (ATS) for a single phase power generator has been designed to enable the automatic operation and transfer of power supply between a public utility supply and a power generator. The ATS, which is a switchgear control system, provides a functional system that provides an automatic switching of power supply between a primary source (public utility) and a secondary power source (generator). The methods employed in designing the ATS involve the use of electromechanical type relays, contactors, voltage monitoring relays and delay timer relays as main components of the system. Incorporated in the ATS is a digital multimeter (DMM) made up of a 12V d.c and a 5V d.c power supply unit, precision rectifier unit, current transformer and Microcontroller (PIC 16F877) to convert the measured analogue alternating current(a.c). voltage and current quantities to digital values for display on the liquid crystal display (LCD). The result of the automatic transfer switch demonstrates its ability to perform automatic power change over activities easily and with little or no human interaction
The deregulation of the Nigerian power sector has resulted in the quest to explore power generati... more The deregulation of the Nigerian power sector has resulted in the quest to explore power generation options for power quality improvement. One of such options is the pattern shift from central power generation to embedded power generation. Network integration of embedded generators (EGs) causes several regulatory, technical and economic issues. This research focuses on power quality challenges that may arise as a result of network integration of embedded generation in a weak electricity networks using Ogba 33 kV injection substation as case study. The embedded generators considered comprised of gas turbine and diesel generators. NEPLAN software was used to perform the load flow analysis with and without EGs connection on the network. This was necessary so as to ascertain the healthiness of the existing distribution network for EGs integration. The power quality issues considered in the study were bus voltage profiles and the total line losses. Simulation results showed that EGs conn...
Energy is indispensable to human existence, and its need is on the increase daily due to technolo... more Energy is indispensable to human existence, and its need is on the increase daily due to technological advancement. In recent times, there is sporadic increase in the development of modern buildings, and these buildings require a cost-effective and sustainable source of energy. Nigeria and some other African countries have major energy shortage issues due to the insufficient power generation and distribution facilities. This energy poverty creates a challenge for the growing population, and as such, it is vital to ensure that the energy supplied to a building is duly optimized and delivered cost effectively. In this study, an energy audit of an eight-floor multipurpose business complex was performed to determine the nature and type of loads within the building. Based on the load profile and energy consumption over a 10-year period, three alternative energy sources (national grid, diesel generator and photovoltaic [PV] system) were considered using various load-sharing ratios. The re...
An Automatic Transfer Switch (ATS) for a single phase power generator has been designed to enable... more An Automatic Transfer Switch (ATS) for a single phase power generator has been designed to enable the automatic operation and transfer of power supply between a public utility supply and a power generator. The ATS, which is a switchgear control system, provides a functional system that provides an automatic switching of power supply between a primary source (public utility) and a secondary power source (generator). The methods employed in designing the ATS involve the use of electromechanical type relays, contactors, voltage monitoring relays and delay timer relays as main components of the system. Incorporated in the ATS is a digital multimeter (DMM) made up of a 12V d.c and a 5V d.c power supply unit, precision rectifier unit, current transformer and Microcontroller (PIC 16F877) to convert the measured analogue alternating current(a.c). voltage and current quantities to digital values for display on the liquid crystal display (LCD). The result of the automatic transfer switch demonstrates its ability to perform automatic power change over activities easily and with little or no human interaction.
This paper presents the use of a novel approach in assessing the generation reliability of a hybr... more This paper presents the use of a novel approach in assessing the generation reliability of a hybrid mini-grid system (HMS) based on the optimal design result obtained from the HOMER software. A typical Nigerian rural community -Lade II in Kwara State was used as a case study where the energy demand for the residential and commercial loads was 2.5MWh/day and 171kWh/day respectively. The optimized HMS results from HOMER comprising of a solar photovoltaic (PV) array (1.5MW), diesel generators (350kW) and battery storage (1200 units) has a combined least net present cost of $4,909,206 and a levelized electricity tariff of $0.396 per kWh. Contrasting the HMS with a diesel-only system for the community, an approximate 97% reduction in all pollutant emissions was observed. Furthermore, fluctuations in diesel fuel prices, variations in average solar insolation, and variations in the solar PV's capital/replacement costs were utilized in conducting a sensitivity analysis for the HMS. The capacity outage probability table (COPT) was utilized in validating the reliability of the simulation results obtained from HOMER. The HMS was observed to experience a load loss of 0.769MW, 0.594MW & 0.419MW when zero, one and two diesel generator(s) respectively were operational for all of the Solar PV's and Batteries being off-line. The loss of load probability (LOLP), loss of load expectation (LOLE), and total expected load loss (ELL) obtained from the COPT were 5.76 Â 10 À8 , 5.0457 Â 10 À4 hr/yr and 0.025344Watt respectively. The results show the reliability of the HMS and also depicts a highly economical and feasible hybrid energy system.
A potential solution to adequate and sustainable electricity supply problems in most ... more A potential solution to adequate and sustainable electricity supply problems in most developing countries is
dependent on proper harnessing of solar (radiant) energy. Owing to the over dependence o n fossil-fuel based energy, there is
an exponential rise in carbon dioxide (CO
2
) emissions into the atmosphere, thereby causing severe environmental degradation
and ozone layer depletion. This paper seeks to apply the readily available radiant energy source to solar water heating, and
establish possible economic benefits to its use in domestic applications for residents of Covenant University campus. The
microcontroller-based active solar water heating system (ASWHS) is designed to effectively absorb radiant energy using solar
collectors, and store it as hot water in a water tank via a direct current (DC) circulation pump powered by a stand-alone
photovoltaic (PV) system. The design also incorporates an auxiliary electric heater which is put to use only when there is
insufficient radiant energy. A case study is reported to show the importance of the ASWHS for domestic water heating. The
maximum design efficiency and the expected energy output of the solar collector throughout its working life is 79.94% and
498,225kWh respectively. A reduced dependence on grid supply and/or fossil-fuel based generator sets during hot water
demand periods is recorded using the ASWHS with a high payback period of 15 years; and a lower unit cost (US$0.01/kWh)
of the ASWHS makes it more economically viable as compared to the unit cost (US$0.18/kWh) of the grid supply for the same
amount of energy consumed.
Keywords- ASWHS, CO2 emissions, microcontroller, solar energy, solar collector, unit cost.
A potential solution to adequate and sustainable electricity supply problems in most developing c... more A potential solution to adequate and sustainable electricity supply problems in most developing countries is dependent on proper harnessing of solar (radiant) energy. Owing to the over dependence on fossil-fuel based energy, there is an exponential rise in carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions into the atmosphere, thereby causing severe environmental degradation and ozone layer depletion. This paper seeks to apply the readily available radiant energy source to solar water heating, and establish possible economic benefits to its use in domestic applications for residents of Covenant University campus. The microcontroller-based active solar water heating system (ASWHS) is designed to effectively absorb radiant energy using solar collectors, and store it as hot water in a water tank via a direct current (DC) circulation pump powered by a stand-alone photovoltaic (PV) system. The design also incorporates an auxiliary electric heater which is put to use only when there is insufficient radiant energy. A case study is reported to show the importance of the ASWHS for domestic water heating. The maximum design efficiency and the expected energy output of the solar collector throughout its working life is 79.94% and 498,225kWh respectively. A reduced dependence on grid supply and/or fossil-fuel based generator sets during hot water demand periods is recorded using the ASWHS with a high payback period of 15 years; and a lower unit cost (US$0.01/kWh) of the ASWHS makes it more economically viable as compared to the unit cost (US$0.18/kWh) of the grid supply for the same amount of energy consumed.
A distribution grid is generally characterized by a high R/X (resistance/reactance) ratio and it ... more A distribution grid is generally characterized by a high R/X (resistance/reactance) ratio and it is radial in nature. By design, a distribution grid system is not an active network, and it is normally designed in such a way that power flows from transmission system via distribution system to consumers. But in a situation when wind turbines are connected to the distribution grid, the power source will change from one source to two sources, in this case, network is said to be active. This may probably have an impact on the distribution grid to whenever the wind turbine is connected. The best way to know the impact of wind turbine on the distribution grid in question is by carrying out load flow analysis on that system with and without the connection of wind turbines. Two major fundamental calculations: the steady-state voltage variation at the PCC (point of common coupling) and the calculation of short-circuit power of the grid system at the POC (point of connection) are necessary before carrying out the load flow study on the distribution grid. This paper, therefore, considers these pre-load flow calculations that are necessary before carrying out load flow study on the test distribution grid. These calculations are carried out on a test distribution system.
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Papers by Agbetuyi Ayoade
dependent on proper harnessing of solar (radiant) energy. Owing to the over dependence o n fossil-fuel based energy, there is
an exponential rise in carbon dioxide (CO
2
) emissions into the atmosphere, thereby causing severe environmental degradation
and ozone layer depletion. This paper seeks to apply the readily available radiant energy source to solar water heating, and
establish possible economic benefits to its use in domestic applications for residents of Covenant University campus. The
microcontroller-based active solar water heating system (ASWHS) is designed to effectively absorb radiant energy using solar
collectors, and store it as hot water in a water tank via a direct current (DC) circulation pump powered by a stand-alone
photovoltaic (PV) system. The design also incorporates an auxiliary electric heater which is put to use only when there is
insufficient radiant energy. A case study is reported to show the importance of the ASWHS for domestic water heating. The
maximum design efficiency and the expected energy output of the solar collector throughout its working life is 79.94% and
498,225kWh respectively. A reduced dependence on grid supply and/or fossil-fuel based generator sets during hot water
demand periods is recorded using the ASWHS with a high payback period of 15 years; and a lower unit cost (US$0.01/kWh)
of the ASWHS makes it more economically viable as compared to the unit cost (US$0.18/kWh) of the grid supply for the same
amount of energy consumed.
Keywords- ASWHS, CO2 emissions, microcontroller, solar energy, solar collector, unit cost.
a distribution grid system is not an active network, and it is normally designed in such a way that power flows from transmission
system via distribution system to consumers. But in a situation when wind turbines are connected to the distribution grid, the power
source will change from one source to two sources, in this case, network is said to be active. This may probably have an impact on
the distribution grid to whenever the wind turbine is connected. The best way to know the impact of wind turbine on the distribution
grid in question is by carrying out load flow analysis on that system with and without the connection of wind turbines. Two major
fundamental calculations: the steady-state voltage variation at the PCC (point of common coupling) and the calculation of
short-circuit power of the grid system at the POC (point of connection) are necessary before carrying out the load flow study on the
distribution grid. This paper, therefore, considers these pre-load flow calculations that are necessary before carrying out load flow
study on the test distribution grid. These calculations are carried out on a test distribution system.
dependent on proper harnessing of solar (radiant) energy. Owing to the over dependence o n fossil-fuel based energy, there is
an exponential rise in carbon dioxide (CO
2
) emissions into the atmosphere, thereby causing severe environmental degradation
and ozone layer depletion. This paper seeks to apply the readily available radiant energy source to solar water heating, and
establish possible economic benefits to its use in domestic applications for residents of Covenant University campus. The
microcontroller-based active solar water heating system (ASWHS) is designed to effectively absorb radiant energy using solar
collectors, and store it as hot water in a water tank via a direct current (DC) circulation pump powered by a stand-alone
photovoltaic (PV) system. The design also incorporates an auxiliary electric heater which is put to use only when there is
insufficient radiant energy. A case study is reported to show the importance of the ASWHS for domestic water heating. The
maximum design efficiency and the expected energy output of the solar collector throughout its working life is 79.94% and
498,225kWh respectively. A reduced dependence on grid supply and/or fossil-fuel based generator sets during hot water
demand periods is recorded using the ASWHS with a high payback period of 15 years; and a lower unit cost (US$0.01/kWh)
of the ASWHS makes it more economically viable as compared to the unit cost (US$0.18/kWh) of the grid supply for the same
amount of energy consumed.
Keywords- ASWHS, CO2 emissions, microcontroller, solar energy, solar collector, unit cost.
a distribution grid system is not an active network, and it is normally designed in such a way that power flows from transmission
system via distribution system to consumers. But in a situation when wind turbines are connected to the distribution grid, the power
source will change from one source to two sources, in this case, network is said to be active. This may probably have an impact on
the distribution grid to whenever the wind turbine is connected. The best way to know the impact of wind turbine on the distribution
grid in question is by carrying out load flow analysis on that system with and without the connection of wind turbines. Two major
fundamental calculations: the steady-state voltage variation at the PCC (point of common coupling) and the calculation of
short-circuit power of the grid system at the POC (point of connection) are necessary before carrying out the load flow study on the
distribution grid. This paper, therefore, considers these pre-load flow calculations that are necessary before carrying out load flow
study on the test distribution grid. These calculations are carried out on a test distribution system.