Michael J. Carter is Professor of Sociology at California State University, Northridge. His main research interests are in social psychology and microsociological theory, specifically the areas of self and identity.
Social psychologists have noted that role identities contain both conventional (culturally influe... more Social psychologists have noted that role identities contain both conventional (culturally influenced) and idiosyncratic (uniquely interpreted) meanings. To this point, this distinction has mostly been theoretical, and little empirical research exists that addresses how individuals define role identities in conventional or idiosyncratic ways. In this study, we create a scale that captures the conventional vs. idiosyncratic balance of role identity meanings and report the results of a study that examines the relationship between this balance and identity prominence and salience. We administer a survey to 934 study participants that measures the conventional/idiosyncratic balance, prominence, and salience of the student, worker, and friend role identities. Our results show that the more conventional one’s role identities, the more prominent and salient the identities.
“Morality” represents normative expectations and codes of conduct regarding what is right or wron... more “Morality” represents normative expectations and codes of conduct regarding what is right or wrong, proper or improper, or appropriate or inappropriate in society. This entry discusses morality as it has been understood in sociology and related fields by addressing five general themes: (1) conceptions of morality in the classical era of sociology; (2) how morality is embedded in social institutions; (3) relationships among morality, power, and inequality; (4) morality as a practice that is embedded in everyday life via discourse, language, and narratives; (5) evolutionary perspectives on morality.
Past research in the literature on the self has addressed how self-concept clarity changes over t... more Past research in the literature on the self has addressed how self-concept clarity changes over time. In this study, we use a cross-sectional research design to examine the relationship between self-perceptions of identity change and self-concept clarity, showing how fluctuations in self-concept clarity relate to two discrete dimensions of perceived identity change: the magnitude and direction of change. A survey was administered to 854 study participants that measured perceived changes in 12 discrete identities (four person, four role, and four social identities) over a 6-month period. The results reveal that generally the more severe one's perceived experience of identity change, the lower their degree of self-concept clarity. However, when the direction of one's perceived identity change is progressive (i.e., developing into an identity) rather than regressive (i.e., exiting out of an identity), one's degree of self-concept clarity increases.
Recent work in the literature on identity has begun to examine differences in the operation of pe... more Recent work in the literature on identity has begun to examine differences in the operation of person, role, and social identities, and how each base of identity links to specific outcomes of the self. In this study we employ a cross-sectional research design and examine how individuals perceive that they have changed as a type of person, role player, and group member, and how these perceived changes link to specific outcomes of the self. An online survey was administered to 854 study participants to measure the magnitude and direction of change they perceived occurred in twelve discrete identities in a six-month period prior to completing the survey. The results show that in reflecting on their past experience, study participants perceived that they experienced more change in their role identities compared to their person and social identities. The results also show that the magnitude of perceived change in any type of identity relates to negative emotions, and when individuals perceive that their identity change is progressive in nature it relates to greater authenticity, self-efficacy, self-worth, and positive emotions. Implications of the findings are discussed.
In this study, we investigate how identity prominence influences individuals to use face-to-face ... more In this study, we investigate how identity prominence influences individuals to use face-to-face or digitally mediated settings when communicating with significant others, and whether emotional reactions to nonverifying feedback regarding an identity vary depending upon the prominence of the identity and interaction setting. Results show that the more prominent an identity, the more likely individuals are to communicate with significant others related to the identity in face-to-face rather than digitally mediated settings. However, when controlling for identity prominence, we find that nonverifying feedback from significant others produces a similar a degree of negative emotions in both face-to-face and digitally mediated environments.
This study uses a cross-sectional research design to examine how individuals perceive recent expe... more This study uses a cross-sectional research design to examine how individuals perceive recent experiences of identity change in various person, role, and social identities. Specifically addressed is how self-perceptions regarding the magnitude and direction of one’s experience of identity change relate to depression. A survey was administered to 854 study participants that measured perceived changes in 12 discrete identities (four person, four role, and four social identities) over a 6-month period. The results reveal that the more severe one perceives their experience of identity change to be, the greater their level of depression. However, generally, when one perceives that the direction of their identity change is progressive (rather than regressive), they are less likely to be depressed.
Over the past few decades, claims of grade inflation in American higher education have been ubiqu... more Over the past few decades, claims of grade inflation in American higher education have been ubiquitous, with ample evidence documenting its prevalence and severity. Many have condemned the trend toward grade inflation , noting that students spend less time studying in courses that inflate grades, and that students who receive inflated grades in introductory or preliminary courses often do poorly in advanced courses. In this article we present summary findings of a study we conducted that examines grading trends across a recent five-year span in two of the largest higher education systems in the United States: the University of California (UC) and California State University (CSU) systems. We show that changes in grade distributions in many campuses have begun to plateau, but note that it may be premature to claim that grade inflation is an issue of the past. We also cite and discuss a potential correlate of grade inflation others have ignored: the relationship between grade point averages and semantic definitions of grade categories.
In this chapter I examine contemporary theoretical frameworks that address four micro-level socia... more In this chapter I examine contemporary theoretical frameworks that address four micro-level social comparison processes: social exchange, trust, justice, and legitimacy. I first review the basic elements of each process, as defined by scholars who work in their respective research traditions. I then describe theories that have emerged over the past decades that address how each process operates for individuals in social interactions, groups, and in greater society. I then review relevant empirical research that has furthered our understanding of each process. Finally, I discuss interrelations among exchange, trust, justice, and legitimacy and survey recent research that examines how these processes operate together during social interactions.
Past research has found that self-esteem in deaf individuals is predicted by variables such as th... more Past research has found that self-esteem in deaf individuals is predicted by variables such as the age they become deaf, the type of school they attend, whether they use sign language or another mode of communication, their parents' hearing status, and their family's socioeconomic status. This study applies identity control theory and examines the relationship between Deaf identity verification processes and self-esteem. The results show that, when controlling for variables known to relate to self-esteem, deaf individuals' education and the degree of difficulty they have in verifying self-meanings in social situations are the only significant predictors of variance in self-esteem. The article discusses the study findings and considers the implications for identity control theorists and Deaf studies scholars.
In this article, I present an authoethnography of my experience as a sports fan as a method to un... more In this article, I present an authoethnography of my experience as a sports fan as a method to understand identity change. I use my personal experience as a method to understand general identity processes. Specifically, I apply identity theory and use my experience of identity change to illustrate the operation of four general themes: the source of identity change as a broken identity verification loop; the impact of identity change on authenticity; thresholds of tolerance for fluctuations in identity meanings; and the effect of changes in highly salient identities on other identities in the self-concept.
Symbolic interactionism is a theoretical perspective in sociology that addresses the manner in wh... more Symbolic interactionism is a theoretical perspective in sociology that addresses the manner in which society is created and maintained through face-to-face, repeated, meaningful interactions among individuals. This article surveys past theory and research in the interactionist tradition. It first provides an overview of three main trajectories in symbolic interactionist thought, focusing on the work of Herbert Blumer (the Chicago School), Manford Kuhn (the Iowa School), and Sheldon Stryker (the Indiana School). A brief summary of each figure's general perspective on symbolic interactionism is given, followed by a discussion of the research methodology that defines and distinguishes each. The article then reviews and assesses the empirical research that has emerged from these trajectories over the past decades, beginning with the classical studies of the mid-twentieth century and culminating in research programs that have emerged in the contemporary era. Specifically, this article surveys significant contributions to the symbolic interactionist literature in areas such as dramaturgy, cultural studies, postmodernism, gender/status/power, self and identity, collective behavior and social movements, and social context and the environment. It concludes with a discussion of future directions symbolic interactionists should take in continuing to develop the field.
Social psychologists have noted that role identities contain both conventional (culturally influe... more Social psychologists have noted that role identities contain both conventional (culturally influenced) and idiosyncratic (uniquely interpreted) meanings. To this point, this distinction has mostly been theoretical, and little empirical research exists that addresses how individuals define role identities in conventional or idiosyncratic ways. In this study, we create a scale that captures the conventional vs. idiosyncratic balance of role identity meanings and report the results of a study that examines the relationship between this balance and identity prominence and salience. We administer a survey to 934 study participants that measures the conventional/idiosyncratic balance, prominence, and salience of the student, worker, and friend role identities. Our results show that the more conventional one’s role identities, the more prominent and salient the identities.
“Morality” represents normative expectations and codes of conduct regarding what is right or wron... more “Morality” represents normative expectations and codes of conduct regarding what is right or wrong, proper or improper, or appropriate or inappropriate in society. This entry discusses morality as it has been understood in sociology and related fields by addressing five general themes: (1) conceptions of morality in the classical era of sociology; (2) how morality is embedded in social institutions; (3) relationships among morality, power, and inequality; (4) morality as a practice that is embedded in everyday life via discourse, language, and narratives; (5) evolutionary perspectives on morality.
Past research in the literature on the self has addressed how self-concept clarity changes over t... more Past research in the literature on the self has addressed how self-concept clarity changes over time. In this study, we use a cross-sectional research design to examine the relationship between self-perceptions of identity change and self-concept clarity, showing how fluctuations in self-concept clarity relate to two discrete dimensions of perceived identity change: the magnitude and direction of change. A survey was administered to 854 study participants that measured perceived changes in 12 discrete identities (four person, four role, and four social identities) over a 6-month period. The results reveal that generally the more severe one's perceived experience of identity change, the lower their degree of self-concept clarity. However, when the direction of one's perceived identity change is progressive (i.e., developing into an identity) rather than regressive (i.e., exiting out of an identity), one's degree of self-concept clarity increases.
Recent work in the literature on identity has begun to examine differences in the operation of pe... more Recent work in the literature on identity has begun to examine differences in the operation of person, role, and social identities, and how each base of identity links to specific outcomes of the self. In this study we employ a cross-sectional research design and examine how individuals perceive that they have changed as a type of person, role player, and group member, and how these perceived changes link to specific outcomes of the self. An online survey was administered to 854 study participants to measure the magnitude and direction of change they perceived occurred in twelve discrete identities in a six-month period prior to completing the survey. The results show that in reflecting on their past experience, study participants perceived that they experienced more change in their role identities compared to their person and social identities. The results also show that the magnitude of perceived change in any type of identity relates to negative emotions, and when individuals perceive that their identity change is progressive in nature it relates to greater authenticity, self-efficacy, self-worth, and positive emotions. Implications of the findings are discussed.
In this study, we investigate how identity prominence influences individuals to use face-to-face ... more In this study, we investigate how identity prominence influences individuals to use face-to-face or digitally mediated settings when communicating with significant others, and whether emotional reactions to nonverifying feedback regarding an identity vary depending upon the prominence of the identity and interaction setting. Results show that the more prominent an identity, the more likely individuals are to communicate with significant others related to the identity in face-to-face rather than digitally mediated settings. However, when controlling for identity prominence, we find that nonverifying feedback from significant others produces a similar a degree of negative emotions in both face-to-face and digitally mediated environments.
This study uses a cross-sectional research design to examine how individuals perceive recent expe... more This study uses a cross-sectional research design to examine how individuals perceive recent experiences of identity change in various person, role, and social identities. Specifically addressed is how self-perceptions regarding the magnitude and direction of one’s experience of identity change relate to depression. A survey was administered to 854 study participants that measured perceived changes in 12 discrete identities (four person, four role, and four social identities) over a 6-month period. The results reveal that the more severe one perceives their experience of identity change to be, the greater their level of depression. However, generally, when one perceives that the direction of their identity change is progressive (rather than regressive), they are less likely to be depressed.
Over the past few decades, claims of grade inflation in American higher education have been ubiqu... more Over the past few decades, claims of grade inflation in American higher education have been ubiquitous, with ample evidence documenting its prevalence and severity. Many have condemned the trend toward grade inflation , noting that students spend less time studying in courses that inflate grades, and that students who receive inflated grades in introductory or preliminary courses often do poorly in advanced courses. In this article we present summary findings of a study we conducted that examines grading trends across a recent five-year span in two of the largest higher education systems in the United States: the University of California (UC) and California State University (CSU) systems. We show that changes in grade distributions in many campuses have begun to plateau, but note that it may be premature to claim that grade inflation is an issue of the past. We also cite and discuss a potential correlate of grade inflation others have ignored: the relationship between grade point averages and semantic definitions of grade categories.
In this chapter I examine contemporary theoretical frameworks that address four micro-level socia... more In this chapter I examine contemporary theoretical frameworks that address four micro-level social comparison processes: social exchange, trust, justice, and legitimacy. I first review the basic elements of each process, as defined by scholars who work in their respective research traditions. I then describe theories that have emerged over the past decades that address how each process operates for individuals in social interactions, groups, and in greater society. I then review relevant empirical research that has furthered our understanding of each process. Finally, I discuss interrelations among exchange, trust, justice, and legitimacy and survey recent research that examines how these processes operate together during social interactions.
Past research has found that self-esteem in deaf individuals is predicted by variables such as th... more Past research has found that self-esteem in deaf individuals is predicted by variables such as the age they become deaf, the type of school they attend, whether they use sign language or another mode of communication, their parents' hearing status, and their family's socioeconomic status. This study applies identity control theory and examines the relationship between Deaf identity verification processes and self-esteem. The results show that, when controlling for variables known to relate to self-esteem, deaf individuals' education and the degree of difficulty they have in verifying self-meanings in social situations are the only significant predictors of variance in self-esteem. The article discusses the study findings and considers the implications for identity control theorists and Deaf studies scholars.
In this article, I present an authoethnography of my experience as a sports fan as a method to un... more In this article, I present an authoethnography of my experience as a sports fan as a method to understand identity change. I use my personal experience as a method to understand general identity processes. Specifically, I apply identity theory and use my experience of identity change to illustrate the operation of four general themes: the source of identity change as a broken identity verification loop; the impact of identity change on authenticity; thresholds of tolerance for fluctuations in identity meanings; and the effect of changes in highly salient identities on other identities in the self-concept.
Symbolic interactionism is a theoretical perspective in sociology that addresses the manner in wh... more Symbolic interactionism is a theoretical perspective in sociology that addresses the manner in which society is created and maintained through face-to-face, repeated, meaningful interactions among individuals. This article surveys past theory and research in the interactionist tradition. It first provides an overview of three main trajectories in symbolic interactionist thought, focusing on the work of Herbert Blumer (the Chicago School), Manford Kuhn (the Iowa School), and Sheldon Stryker (the Indiana School). A brief summary of each figure's general perspective on symbolic interactionism is given, followed by a discussion of the research methodology that defines and distinguishes each. The article then reviews and assesses the empirical research that has emerged from these trajectories over the past decades, beginning with the classical studies of the mid-twentieth century and culminating in research programs that have emerged in the contemporary era. Specifically, this article surveys significant contributions to the symbolic interactionist literature in areas such as dramaturgy, cultural studies, postmodernism, gender/status/power, self and identity, collective behavior and social movements, and social context and the environment. It concludes with a discussion of future directions symbolic interactionists should take in continuing to develop the field.
ABSTRACT Past research has found that self-esteem in deaf individuals is predicted by variables s... more ABSTRACT Past research has found that self-esteem in deaf individuals is predicted by variables such as the age they become deaf, the type of school they attend, whether they use sign language or another mode of communication, their parents’ hearing status, and their family’s socioeconomic status. This study applies identity control theory and examines the relationship between Deaf identity verification processes and self-esteem. The results show that, when controlling for variables known to relate to self-esteem, deaf individuals’ education and the degree of difficulty they have in verifying self-meanings in social situations are the only significant predictors of variance in self-esteem. The article discusses the study findings and considers the implications for identity control theorists and Deaf studies scholars.
This research applies identity theory to understand whether moral identity processes operate simi... more This research applies identity theory to understand whether moral identity processes operate similarly or differently depending on group affiliation (gender, race, and religion). A survey measuring facets of the moral identity, moral behavior, and emotions was administered to 315 subjects. Findings support the moral identity as a general human process which does not vary significantly by gender, race, or religion; it is predictive of moral behavior and emotional reactions regardless of the group in which one is affiliated.
In this chapter I examine contemporary theoretical frameworks that address four micro-level socia... more In this chapter I examine contemporary theoretical frameworks that address four micro-level social comparison processes: social exchange, trust, justice, and legitimacy. I first review the basic elements of each process, as defined by scholars who work in their respective research traditions. I then describe theories that have emerged over the past decades that address how each process operates for individuals in social interactions, groups, and in greater society. I then review relevant empirical research that has furthered our understanding of each process. Finally, I discuss interrelations among exchange, trust, justice, and legitimacy and survey recent research that examines how these processes operate together during social interactions.
ABSTRACT This study uses a cross-sectional research design to examine how individuals perceive re... more ABSTRACT This study uses a cross-sectional research design to examine how individuals perceive recent experiences of identity change in various person, role, and social identities. Specifically addressed is how self-perceptions regarding the magnitude and direction of one’s experience of identity change relate to depression. A survey was administered to 854 study participants that measured perceived changes in 12 discrete identities (four person, four role, and four social identities) over a 6-month period. The results reveal that the more severe one perceives their experience of identity change to be, the greater their level of depression. However, generally, when one perceives that the direction of their identity change is progressive (rather than regressive), they are less likely to be depressed.
In this study, we investigate how identity prominence influences individuals to use face-to-face ... more In this study, we investigate how identity prominence influences individuals to use face-to-face or digitally mediated settings when communicating with significant others, and whether emotional reactions to nonverifying feedback regarding an identity vary depending upon the prominence of the identity and interaction setting. Results show that the more prominent an identity, the more likely individuals are to communicate with significant others related to the identity in face-to-face rather than digitally mediated settings. However, when controlling for identity prominence, we find that nonverifying feedback from significant others produces a similar a degree of negative emotions in both face-to-face and digitally mediated environments.
Abstract In this article, I present an authoethnography of my experience as a sports fan as a met... more Abstract In this article, I present an authoethnography of my experience as a sports fan as a method to understand identity change. I use my personal experience as a method to understand general identity processes. Specifically, I apply identity theory and use my experience of identity change to illustrate the operation of four general themes: the source of identity change as a broken identity verification loop; the impact of identity change on authenticity; thresholds of tolerance for fluctuations in identity meanings; and the effect of changes in highly salient identities on other identities in the self-concept.
ABSTRACT Past research has found that self-esteem in deaf individuals is predicted by variables s... more ABSTRACT Past research has found that self-esteem in deaf individuals is predicted by variables such as the age they become deaf, the type of school they attend, whether they use sign language or another mode of communication, their parents’ hearing status, and their family’s socioeconomic status. This study applies identity control theory and examines the relationship between Deaf identity verification processes and self-esteem. The results show that, when controlling for variables known to relate to self-esteem, deaf individuals’ education and the degree of difficulty they have in verifying self-meanings in social situations are the only significant predictors of variance in self-esteem. The article discusses the study findings and considers the implications for identity control theorists and Deaf studies scholars.
In this study, I used a social psychological framework to better understand the influences and ou... more In this study, I used a social psychological framework to better understand the influences and outcomes of Deaf identity centrality. An online survey was administered to 346 deaf individuals to measure facets of their Deaf identity. Results show that age, severity of hearing loss, age when an individual became deaf, and communication method (whether the individual uses sign language versus spoken communication) all influence Deaf identity centrality. Results also show that the higher a deaf individual's degree of Deaf identity centrality, the higher their self-esteem, the greater their degree of self-concept clarity, the more likely they are to attend events in the Deaf community, and the more comfortable they feel around others who are deaf. Implications of the study findings are discussed.
In this article we revisit the strategy of using literature to inform sociology. We address a cen... more In this article we revisit the strategy of using literature to inform sociology. We address a central question: what literary themes are generally ignored by sociologists, and how can sociology as a discipline benefit by incorporating such themes in theories of social processes? We identify ten themes that are common in literature but not common in sociological analyses: optimism, pessimism, ambition, indolence, betrayal, revenge, curiosity, apathy, doubt, and certainty. We first provide examples of how each theme is addressed in classic literature e.g., in works of fiction, poetry, religious texts, etc. and discuss their importance in understanding facets of the human condition. We then discuss how considering each theme can benefit theory and research in sociology. We conclude with a discussion of what changes must occur within the discipline of sociology to encourage sociologists to look beyond common themes and toward new areas of inquiry.
In “Teaching Sociological Theory for a New Century: Contending with the Time Crunch,” Abrutyn arg... more In “Teaching Sociological Theory for a New Century: Contending with the Time Crunch,” Abrutyn argues that it is time to re-think how sociological theory is taught in the university due to time constraints that make it increasingly difficult to cover the expanding canon of sociological theory. In this article I revisit Abrutyn’s position on the state of teaching sociological theory. I analyze sociological theory course syllabi across the discipline to provide further evidence that illustrates the problem of the time crunch. From this investigation I argue that the best strategy to deal with the “time crunch” is to re-think the way theory is taught and add an additional course to current curricula. Only by adding an additional course and trichotomizing the current classical and contemporary dichotomy can the time crunch be corrected.
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