Abstract
The integrated use of electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) and ground penetrating radar (GPR) measurements, and in particular the joint analysis of 2D and 3D data, can represent a valid solution for target identification at complex archaeological sites. A good example, in this respect, is given by the case study of a Phoenician–Punic necropolis in the archaeological site of Nora, in southern Sardinia (Italy), where GPR and ERT measurements were collected before site excavation. In this specific case, the mix of soil and air in the buried chambers, as well as the orientation and the complex spatial distribution of these structures into the sandstone bedrock, generated a number of anomalies difficult to interpret only using 2D results. Only the integration of all GPR and ERT data in a 3D view, and the comparison with archaeological evidence after the excavation, allowed a solid interpretation of geophysical anomalies visible in the 2D sections. Overall, this case study demonstrates the efficiency of the combined use of GPR and ERT acquisitions and shows how, in general, only the joint analysis of 2D data and in a 3D view can help the interpretation of the real distribution of the buried archaeological remains at similar archaeological complex sites.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
The Archaeological Mission in Nora is sustained by the Universities of Padova, Milano, Genova and Cagliari. The Soprintendenza Archeologia Belle Arti Paesaggio coordinates the activities with appreciated efforts.
Nemetschek Vectorworks 2013®.
References
Abbas AM, Khalil MA, Massoud U, Santos FM, Mesbah HA, Lethy A, Soliman M, Ragab ESA (2012) The implementation of multi-task geophysical survey to locate Cleopatra tomb at tap-Osiris Magna, Borg El-Arab, Alexandria, Egypt “phase II”. NRIAG-JAG 1:1–11
Amadasi Guzzo G (1990) Le iscrizioni fenicio puniche in Italia. Istituto poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato, Roma
Arato A, Piro S, Sambuelli L (2015) 3D inversion of ERT data on an archaeological site using GPR reflection and 3D inverted magnetic data as a priori information. Near Surf Geophys. https://doi.org/10.3997/1873-0604.2015046
Athanasiou E, Tsourlos P, Vargemezis G, Papazachos C, Tsokas GN (2007) Non-destructive DC resistivity surveying using flat-base electrodes: near Surface. Geophysics 5:263–272
Bartoloni P (1987) La Tomba 2 AR della necropoli di Sulcis. Rivista di Studi Fenici XV, Consiglio nazionale delle ricerche 1:57–73
Bartoloni P (2000) La necropoli di Monte Sirai. I. Collezione di Studi Fenici, 41. Consiglio nazionale delle ricerche, Roma
Bartoloni P (2009) Archeologia fenicio-punica in Sardegna. Introduzione allo studio. CUEC editrice, Cagliari
Bartoloni P (2015) Il rituale funebre fenicio e punico. In: Mannia S, Buttitta IE (eds) La morte e i morti nelle società euromediterranee. Atti del Convegno internazionale Palermo, Palermo, pp 45–58
Batayneh A (2011) Archaeogeophysics-archaeological prospection—a mini review. J King Saud Univ Sci 23:83–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2010.06.011
Belina FA, Dafflon B, Tronicke J, Holliger K (2009) Enhancing the vertical resolution of surface georadar data. J Appl Geophys 68:26–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jappgeo.2008.08.011
Berard BA, Maillol JM (2008) Common- and multi-offset ground-penetrating radar study of a Roman villa, Tourega, Portugal. Archaeol Prospect 15:32–46. https://doi.org/10.1002/arp.319
Berge M, Drahor M (2011) Electrical resistivity tomography investigations of multilayered archaeological settlements: part II—a case from old Smyrna Höyük. Prospect, Turkey Archaeol. https://doi.org/10.1002/arp.423
Bonetto J (2002) Nora municipio romano. In: Khanoussi M (ed) L’Africa romana. Lo spazio marittimo del Mediterraneo occidentale. Geografia storica ed economia, Atti del 14. Convegno di studio (Sassari, 7-10 dicembre 2000). Carocci Editore, Roma, pp 1199–1217
Bonetto J (2009) L’insediamento di età fenicia, punica e romana repubblicana nell’area del foro di Nora. In: Bonetto J, Ghiotto AR, Novello M (ed) Nora. Il foro romano. Storia di un’area urbana dall’età fenicia alla tarda antichità, I. Lo scavo, Scavi di Nora 1:41–243. Italgraf editore, Padova
Bonetto J (2014) L’insediamento fenicio di Nora e le comunità nuragiche: contatti e distanze. In: Van Dommelen P, Roppa A (eds) Materiali e contesti nell’età del ferro sarda, Atti della giornata di studi (Museo civico di San Vero Milis, 25 maggio 2012), Rivista di Studi Fenici 41:1. Fabrizio Serra editore, Roma, pp 173–182
Bonetto J (2016a) Nora da colonia cartaginese a municipio romano. In: De Vincenzo S, Blasetti Fantauzzi C (ed.) Il processo di romanizzazione della provincia Sardinia et Corsica, Atti del Convegno internazionale (Cuglieri (Or), 26–28 marzo 2015), Analysis Archaeologica. An International Journal of Western Mediterranean Archaeology, Monograph series n. 1. Edizioni Quasar, Roma, pp 165–190
Bonetto J (2016b) Vecchie e nuove conoscenze per lo studio delle necropoli fenicie e puniche di Nora. In: Botto M, Finocchi S, Garbati G, Oggiano I (eds) “Lo mio maestro e ‘l mio autore” Studi in onore di Sandro Filippo Bondì. Rivista di Studi Fenici, XLIV, Quasar edizioni, Roma, pp 263–274
Bonetto J, Botto M (2017) Tra i primi a Nora. Una sepoltura a cremazione nella necropoli sull’istmo, Quaderni della Soprintendenza di Cagliari, 28. Ministero per i Beni e le Attività Culturali, pp 193–214
Bonetto J, Ghiotto AR (2013) Nora nei secoli dell’Altomedioevo. In: Martorelli R (ed.) Settecento-Millecento. Storia, Archeologia e Arte nei “secoli bui” del Mediterraneo. Dalle fonti scritte, archeologiche ed artistiche alla ricostruzione della vicenda storica. La Sardegna laboratorio di esperienze culturali, Atti del Convegno (Cagliari, 17–19 ottobre 2012). Scuola sarda editrice, Cagliari, pp 271–290
Bonetto J, Ghiotto AR (2017) Le città della Sardegna in età romana. In: Angiolillo S, Martorelli R, Giuman M, Corda A M, Artizzu D (edd.) La Sardegna romana e altomedievale. Storia e materiali, Corpora delle Antichità della Sardegna. Carlo Delfino editore, Cagliari, pp 45–56
Bonetto J, Andreatta C, Berto S, Bison L, Bridi E, Covolan M, Dilaria S, Mazzariol A, Ranzato M (2017a) La necropoli fenicio-punica e le infrastrutture romane nell’area della ex Base della Marina Militare. Quaderni Norensi. Padova University Press, 6:169–188
Bonetto J, Carraro F, Mazzariol A (2017b) Nora e il mare. La necropoli punica orientale: le nuove acquisizioni e il rischio idrogeologico. Quaderni Norensi. Padova University Press, 6:191–199
Booth AD, Linford NT, Clark RA, Murray T (2008) Three-dimensional, multi-offset ground-penetrating radar imaging of archaeological targets. Archaeol Prospect 15:93–112. https://doi.org/10.1002/arp.327
Bottari C, Aringoli D, Carluccio R, Castellano C, D’Ajello Caracciolo F, Gasperini M, Materazzi M, Nicolosi I, Pambianchi G, Pieruccini P, Sepe V, Urbini S, Varazi F (2017) Geomorphological and geophysical investigations for the characterization of the Roman Carsulae site (Tiber basin, Central Italy). J Appl Geophys. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jappgeo.2017.03.021
Botto M (2011) 1992–2002: Dieci anni di prospezioni topografiche a Nora e nel suo territorio. In: Bonetto J, Falezza G (edd.) Vent’anni di scavi a Nora. Formazione, ricerca e politica culturale, Atti della Giornata di studio (Padova, 22 marzo 2010), Scavi di Nora II. Italgraf editore, Padova, pp 59–84
Boubaki N, Saintenoy A, Tucholka P (2011) GPR profiling and electrical resistivity tomography for buried cavity detection: a test site at the abbaye de l’Ouye (France), In: 2011 6th international workshop on advanced ground penetrating radar (IWAGPR), Aachen https://doi.org/10.1109/IWAGPR.2011.5963852
Campana S, Piro S (2009) Seeing the unseen—geophysics and landscape archaeology. CRC Press, London
Cardarelli E, Di Filippo G, Tuccinardi E (2006) Electrical resistivity tomography to detect buried cavities in Rome: a case study. Near Surf Geophys 4:387–392
Cardarelli E, Fischanger F, Piro S (2008) Integrated geophysical survey to detect buried structures for archaeological prospecting. A case-history at Sabine Necropolis (Rome, Italy). Near Surf Geophys 6:15–20
Conyers LB (2015a) Ground-penetrating radar data analysis for more complete archaeological interpretations. Archaeol Pol 53:202–207
Conyers LB (2015b) Analysis and interpretation of GPR datasets for integrated archaeological mapping: Multiple GPR datasets for integrated archaeological mapping. Near surf geophys 31:2241–2262
Daily WA, Ramirez A, Binley A, LaBrecque D (2004) Electrical resistivity tomography. Lead Edge 23:438–442
de Silva F, d’Onofrio A, Evangelista L, Fascia F, Silvestri F, Scotto di Santolo A, Sica S, Cavuoto G, Di Fiore V, Punzo M, Vettimo di Scotto P, Tarallo D (2014). Application of ERT and GPR geophysical testing to the geotechnical characterization of historical sites. https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1.2222.4645
Di Gregorio F, Floris C, Matta P (2000) Lineamenti geologici e geomorfologici della penisola di Nora. In: Tronchetti C (ed) Ricerche su Nora, I, anni 1990–1998. Ministero per i Beni e le Attività Culturali, Cagliari, pp 9–17
Drahor M (2011) A review of integrated geophysical investigations from archaeological and cultural sites under encroaching urbanisation in İzmir, Turkey. Phys Chem Earth Phys Chem Earth. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2011.03.010
Economou N, Benedetto F, Bano M, Tzanis A, Nyquist J, Sandmeier KJ, Cassidy N (2017) Editorial of SI: GPR signal processing. Sig Process. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sigpro.2016.07.032
Edwards M, Okita W, Goodman D (2000) Investigation of a subterranean tomb in Miyazaki, Japan. Archaeol Prospect 7:215–224
Ekinci YL, Kaya M, Başaran C, Kasapoğlu H, Demirci A, Durgut C (2012) Geophysical imaging survey in the South Necropolis at the Ancient City of Parion (Kemer-Biga), NW Anatolia, Turkey: preliminary Results. Mediterr Archaeol Archaeom 12:145–158
El-Behiry MG (2000) Nondestructive geophysical surveys for delineating buried tombs and identifying environmental status. In: Proceedings for SAGEEP 2000, Washington D.C., pp 399–406
El-Qady G, Hafez M, Abdalla MA, Ushijima K (2005) Imaging subsurface cavities using geoelectric tomography and ground-penetrating radar. J Cave Karst Stud 67:174–181
Ernenwein EG, Kvamme KL (2008) Data processing issues in large-area GPR surveys: correcting trace misalignments, edge discontinuities and striping. Archaeol Prospect 15:133–149
Fassbinder J (2011). Geophysical prospection: a powerful non-destructive research method for the detection, mapping and preservation of monuments and sites. In: CEUR workshop proceedings. 806. 1
Francese R, Finzi E, Morelli G (2009) 3-D high-resolution multi-channel radar investigation of a Roman village in Northern Italy. J Appl Geophys 67:44–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jappgeo.2008.09.004
Gaffney C (2008) Detecting trends in the prediction of the buried past: a review of geophysical techniques in archaeology. Archaeometry 50:313–336. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4754.2008.00388.x
Gaffney C (2009) Geophysical survey in archaeological field evaluation. Archaeol Prospect 16:139–140. https://doi.org/10.1002/arp.346
Gaffney C, Gater J (2003) Revealing the buried past: geophysics for archaeologists. The History Press, UK
Goodman D, Novo A, Morelli G, Piro S, Kutruber D, Henrique L (2011). Advances in GPR Imaging with multi‐channel radar systems from engineering to archaeology. In: Proceedings of the symposium on the application of geophysics to engineering and environmental problems, SAGEEP. https://doi.org/10.4133/1.3614128
Kofman L, Ronen A, Frydman S (2006) Detection of model voids by identifying reverberation phenomena in GPR records. J Appl Geophys 59:284–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jappgeo.2005.09.005
Küçükdemirci M, Özer E, Piro S, Baydemir N, Zamuner D (2017) An application of integration approaches for archaeo-geophysical data: case study from Aizanoi. Archaeol Prospect. https://doi.org/10.1002/arp.1583
LaBrecque DJ, Morelli G, Daily W, Ramirez A, Lundegard P (1999) Occam’s inversion of 3D ERT data. In: Spies B (ed) Three-dimensional electromagnetics. SEG, Tulsa, pp 575–590
Leckebusch J (2003) Ground-penetrating radar: a modern three-dimensional prospection method. Archaeol Prospect 10:213–240. https://doi.org/10.1002/arp.211
Leckebusch J (2005) Use of antenna arrays for GPR surveying in archaeology. Near Surf Geophys. https://doi.org/10.3997/1873-0604.2005006
Leckebusch J, Peikert R, Hauser M (2001) Advances in 3D visualization of georadar data. Archaeological prospection. In: 4th international conference on archaeological prospection, Vienna, pp 143–144
Leucci G (2006) Contribution of ground-penetrating radar and electrical resistivity tomography to identify the cavity and fractures under the main church in Botrugno (Lecce, Italy). J Archaeol Sci 33:1194–1204
Leucci G, Negri S (2006) Use of ground penetrating radar to map subsurface archaeological features in an urban area. J Archaeol Sci 33:502–512. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2005.09.006
Leucci G, De Giorgi L, Di Giacomo G, Ditaranto I, Miccoli I, Scardozzi G (2016) 3D GPR survey for the archaeological characterization of the ancient Messapian necropolis in Lecce, South Italy. J Archaeol Sci Rep 7:290–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2016.05.027
Linford N (2006) The application of geophysical methods to archaeological prospection. Rep Prog Phys. https://doi.org/10.1088/0034-4885/69/7/R04
Loke M, Chambers J, Rucker D, Kuras O, Wilkinson P (2013) Recent developments in the direct-current geoelectrical imaging method. J Appl Geophys 95:135–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jappgeo.2013.02.017
López J, Rey J, Gutiérrez LM, Novo A, Ortiz Villarejo AJ, Armijo M, Galdóne JM (2015) Electrical resistivity imaging (ERI) and ground-penetrating radar (GPR) survey at the Giribaile site (upper Guadalquivir valley; southern Spain). J Appl Geophys 123:218–226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jappgeo.2015.10.013
Mazzariol A, Bonetto J (2017) Nuovi dati d’archivio e nuove evidenze archeologiche sulla necropoli punica orientale di Nora (Cagliari). In: Fold&R, 390, Associazione Internazionale di Archeologia Classica, Roma
Negri S, Leucci G, Mazzone F (2008) High resolution 3D ERT to help GPR data interpretation for researching archaeological items in a geologically complex subsurface. J Appl Geophys 65(3–4):111–120
Neubauer W, Eder-Hinterleitner A, Seren S, Melichar P (2002) Georadar in the Roman civil town Carnuntum, Austria: an approach for archaeological interpretation of GPR data. Archaeol Prospect 9:135–156
Novo A, Grasmueck M, Viggiano DA, Lorenzo H (2008) 3D GPR in archaeology: what can be gained from dense data acquisition and processing? In: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR 2008), Birmingham, pp 16–19
Novo A, Lorenzo H, Rial F, Solla M (2012) From pseudo-3D to full-resolution GPR imaging of a complex Roman site. Near Surf Geophys. https://doi.org/10.3997/1873-0604.2011016
Nuzzo L, Leucci G, Negri S, Carrozzo MT, Quarta T (2002) Application of 3D visualization techniques in the analysis of GPR data for archaeology. Ann Geophys 45(2)
Orlando L (2013) GPR to constrain ERT data inversion in cavity searching: theoretical and practical applications in archeology. J Appl Geophys 89:35–47
Özkan M, Samet O (2017) 3D visualization approach to GPR data. Commun Fac Sci Univ Ankara 59:29–40. https://doi.org/10.1501/commua1-2_0000000102
Papadopoulos N, Tsourlos PI, Tsokas GN, Sarris A (2006) 2D and 3D resistivity imaging in archaeological site investigation. Archaeol Prospect 13:163–181. https://doi.org/10.1002/arp.276
Papadopoulos NG, Sarris A, Yi MJ, Kim JH (2009) Urban archaeological investigations using surface 3D ground penetrating radar and electrical resistivity tomography methods. Explor Geophys 40:56–68
Patroni G (1904) Nora. Colonia fenicia in Sardegna. Monumenti Antichi, 14, Reale Accademia dei Lincei, Ulrico Hoepli editore-libraio della Real Casa e della R. Accademia dei Lincei, Milano, cc 109–268
Piro S, Gabrielli R (2009) Multimethodological approach to investigate chamber tombs in the Sabine Necropolis at Colle del Forno (CNR, Rome, Italy). Archaeol Prospect 16:1–14
Piro S, Goodman D (2008) Integrated GPR data processing for archaeological surveys in urban area. In: The case of Forum (Roma, Italy), 2008, 12th international conference on ground penetrating radar, Birmingham, UK. Proceedings Extended Abstract Volume
Piro S, Tsourlos P, Tsokas GN (2001) Cavity detection employing advanced geophysical techniques: a case study. Eur J Environ Eng Geophys 6:3–31
Piscitelli S, Rizzo E, Cristallo F, Lapenna V, Crocco L, Persico R et al (2007) GPR and microwave tomography for detecting shallow cavities in the historical area of Sassi of Matera (Southern Italy). Near Surf Geophys 5:275–285
Putiška R, Nikolaj M, Dostál I, Kušnirák D (2012) Determination of cavities using electrical resistivity tomography. Contrib Geophys Geod. https://doi.org/10.2478/v10126-012-0018-3
Ribichini S (2004) Sui riti funerari fenici e punici. Tra archeologia e storia delle religioni. In: Gonzalez Prats A (ed) El mundo funerario, Actas del III Seminario internacional sobre temas fenicios (Guardamar del Segura, 3 a5 de mayo de 2002). Universitat de València, Alicante, pp 43–76
Roppa A (2013) Comunità urbane e rurali nella Sardegna punica di età ellenistica. Universitat de València, Valencia
Samet R, Çelik E, Tural S, Şengönül E, Özkan M, Damci E (2017) Using interpolation techniques to determine the optimal profile interval in ground-penetrating radar applications. J Appl Geophys. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jappgeo.2017.04.003
Strapazzon G, Deiana R, Brogiolo GP (2013) Extensive geophysical investigation in urban environment. The case of the episcopal center of Padua. In: Non-destructive approaches to complex archaeological sites in Europe: a round-up”, e-publ. ISBN 978-9-461-97109-8, Ghent, 15-17 January 2013, pp 101–102
Testone V, Longo V, Algeri G, Bottacchi M, Campo D (2012) Ground penetrating radar and geoelectrical surveys to investigate the santa filitica archaeological complex (Northern Sardinia). Rend Online Soc Geol Ital 21:675–677
Testone V, Longo V, Mameli P, Rovina D (2015). Detection of buried tombs by Electrical Resistivity Tomography and Ground Penetrating Radar
Trinks I, Karlsson P, Biwall A, Hinterleitner A (2009) Mapping the urban subsoil using ground penetrating radar: challenges and potentials for archaeological prospection. ArcheoSciences 33:237–240
Trinks I, Johansson B, Gustafsson J, Emilsson J, Friborg J, Gustafsson C et al (2010) Efficient, large-scale archaeological prospection using a true three-dimensional ground-penetrating radar array system. Archaeol Prospect 17:175–186
Trinks I, Hinterleitner A, Neubauer W, Nau E, Löcker K, Wallner M, Gabler M, Filzwieser R, Wilding J, Schiel H, Jansa V, Schneidhofer P, Trausmuth T, Sandici V, Ruß D, Flöry S, Kainz J, Kucera M, Vonkilch A, Seren S (2018) Large-area high-resolution ground-penetrating radar measurements for archaeological prospection. Archaeol Prospect. https://doi.org/10.1002/arp.1599
Tronchetti C (1989) S. Antioco. Sardegna Archeologica, 12, Carlo Delfino editore, Sassari
Tsokas GN, Tsourlos PI, Vargemezis G, Novack M (2008) Non-destructive electrical resistivity tomography for indoor investigation: the case of Kapnikarea Church in Athens. Archaeol Prospect 15:47–61
Utsi E (2010) The use of ground-penetrating radar to extend the results of archaeological excavation. Near Surf Geophys 8:415–422
Verdonck L, Vermeulen F, Docter R, Meyer C, Kniess R (2013) 2D and 3D ground-penetrating radar surveys with a modular system: data processing strategies and results from archaeological field tests. Near Surf Geophys 11:239–252. https://doi.org/10.3997/1873-0604.2013007
Verdonck L, Taelman D, Vermeulen F, Docter R (2015) The impact of spatial sampling and migration on the interpretation of complex archaeological ground-penetrating radar data: impact of spatial sampling and migration on interpreting GPR data. Archaeol Prospect. https://doi.org/10.1002/arp.1501
Witten AJ (2006) Handbook of geophysics and archaeology. Equinox, UK
Zhao W, Tian G, Forte E, Pipan M, Yimin W, Xuejing L, Zhanjie S, Haiyan L (2015a) Advances in GPR data acquisition and analysis for archaeology. Geophys J Int 202(1):62–71
Zhao W, Forte E, Pipan M (2015b) Improved high-resolution GPR imaging and characterization of prehistoric archaeological features by means of attribute analysis. J Archaeol Sci 54:77–85
Zhao W, Forte E, Pipan M (2016) Texture attribute analysis of GPR data for archaeological prospection. Pure Appl Geophys. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-016-1355-3
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge G. Cassiani, G. P. Deidda and G. Vignoli for their support for geophysical acquisitions, G. Leucci for the support for 3D data visualization and also thank for the kind cooperation the Soprintendenza Archeologia Belle Arti e Paesaggio of Cagliari, S. Berto, E. Bridi, F. Carraro, S. Dilaria, L. Zamparo for the archaeological part, G. Martorana and the anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments that greatly improved this manuscript.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Jacopo Bonetto contributed to Sects. 2 and 3; Alessandro Mazzariol worked on the description of the Phoenician and Punic tombs in Sects. 3.1 and 3.2 and worked on the graphic details; Rita Deiana developed the geophysical approach and performed the geophysical measurements and the interpretation of the data; all authors contributed to the drafting of the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Deiana, R., Bonetto, J. & Mazzariol, A. Integrated Electrical Resistivity Tomography and Ground Penetrating Radar Measurements Applied to Tomb Detection. Surv Geophys 39, 1081–1105 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-018-9495-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-018-9495-x