Counter Measures to Combat Money Laundering in the New Digital Age
Article No.: 17, Pages 1 - 13
Abstract
Money Laundering has been a significant concern for governments, law enforcement agencies, and financial institutions worldwide. With the advancement of technology, money laundering techniques have evolved in the digital age, presenting new challenges for authorities and financial institutions. Criminals leverage innovative digital platforms, cryptocurrencies, and virtual assets to launder illicit funds while maintaining anonymity and complexity in their transactions. In this article, we examine the money laundering techniques in the digital age and the challenges posed by these techniques and the implications for the global financial system. Furthermore, the article explores the role of regulatory frameworks, technological solutions, and international cooperation in mitigating the risks associated with digital money laundering. We also explore the countermeasures implemented to detect and prevent these illicit activities. Enhanced Know Your Customer (KYC) regulations, robust transaction monitoring systems, international collaboration, and innovative technologies are among the critical measures to combat digital money laundering.
1 Background
Money Laundering has been a global problem for decades. It is the process of disguising the origins of illegally obtained funds to make them appear legitimate. The practice enables criminals to enjoy the proceeds of their illicit activities while obscuring the paper trail that could lead to their detection and prosecution. Historically, money laundering involved physical cash transactions and complex networks of intermediaries. However, the digital age has brought about significant changes in the way financial transactions are conducted, presenting both opportunities and challenges for money launderers.
The rapid advancement of technology and the widespread adoption of digital payment systems, virtual currencies, and online platforms have opened new avenues for money laundering. Criminals have become increasingly sophisticated in exploiting the vulnerabilities of the digital realm to launder illicit funds. These developments necessitate a thorough understanding of the money laundering techniques prevalent in the digital age and the implementation of effective countermeasures. This article aims to shed light on the various money laundering techniques that have emerged in the digital age. It explores the challenges posed by these techniques and the implications for governments, financial institutions, and law enforcement agencies. Furthermore, the article emphasizes the importance of robust regulatory frameworks, innovative technologies, and international cooperation in combating money laundering effectively in the digital age. By examining case studies, best practices, and emerging trends, the article provides insights into the future of anti-money laundering efforts. Through an in-depth analysis of the subject matter, this article seeks to contribute to the understanding of money laundering techniques in the digital age and provide recommendations for strengthening prevention and detection strategies.
2 Digital Transformation and Money Laundering
In recent years, the global financial landscape has witnessed a profound digital transformation, revolutionizing the way financial transactions are conducted. The widespread adoption of digital payment systems, the rise of virtual currencies, and the increasing prevalence of online platforms have ushered in a new era of convenience and efficiency in financial services. However, this digital revolution has also presented unique challenges, especially in the realm of financial crime. One of the most significant challenges is the adaptation of money laundering techniques to exploit the vulnerabilities of the digital age.
2.1 Digitalization of Financial Transactions
Digital transformation has revolutionized the way financial transactions are conducted, providing convenience, speed, and global connectivity. The widespread adoption of online banking, mobile payment apps, and e-commerce platforms has increased the volume and complexity of digital financial transactions. However, this digitalization has also created new opportunities for money laundering [1].
Criminals exploit the anonymity, speed, and cross-border nature of digital transactions to launder illicit funds. They leverage various techniques and technologies to obscure the source, ownership, and destination of the funds, making detection and tracing more challenging for law enforcement agencies and financial institutions [4]
2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages
The digitalization of financial transactions offers both advantages and disadvantages in the context of combating money laundering.
2.2.1 Advantages.
Data Trails: Digital Transactions leave electronic footprints, creating opportunities for investigators to trace and analyze financial flows, provided they have access to relevant information.
Technological Solutions: Advanced technologies, such as artificial intelligence and machine learning, can be utilized to detect patterns, anomalies, and suspicious activities associated with money laundering.
Regulatory Frameworks: Regulatory bodies are adapting to the challenges of digital money laundering by implementing stricter compliance measures, anti-money laundering regulations, and Know Your Customer (KYC) requirements.
2.2.2 Disadvantages.
Anonymity: Digital transactions can be conducted with pseudonyms or through platforms that provide a certain level of anonymity, making it difficult to trace the origin of funds.
Global Reach: Digital transactions enable money laundering across borders, exploiting jurisdictional differences and the complexity of international financial systems.
Speed and Efficiency: Digital transactions occur in real-time, allowing money launderers to move funds quickly and exploit time-sensitive opportunities.
2.3 Emerging Challenges
The digital age presents several challenges in combating money laundering effectively. Some of the emerging challenges include.
Encryption and Anonymity: The use of encryption and privacy-enhancing technologies enables money launderers to mask their identities and transactions, hindering the detection and investigation processes.
The proliferation of Virtual Currencies: Cryptocurrencies and virtual currencies, such as Bitcoin and Monero, offer additional layers of anonymity and can be used for illicit purposes, including money laundering [2].
Decentralized Exchanges and Darknet Marketplaces: The rise of decentralized exchanges and darknet marketplaces provides platforms for illicit transactions, facilitating money laundering activities.
Cross-border Transactions: Money laundering in the digital age often involves cross-border transactions, taking advantage of the lack of international coordination and inconsistent regulatory frameworks [3].
Emerging Technologies: Criminals continuously adapt to emerging technologies, leveraging techniques such as the use of mixing services, decentralized networks, and innovative financial products to obfuscate the illicit origin of funds.
3 Money Laundering Techniques in the Digital Age
Money laundering, the process of concealing the origins of illicitly obtained funds to make them appear legitimate, has long been a global concern. The advent of the digital age has brought forth a new set of challenges and opportunities for criminals involved in money laundering. With the rapid advancement of technology and the widespread digitization of financial transactions, criminals have found innovative ways to exploit the digital realm to facilitate their illegal activities.
3.1 Virtual Currencies and Cryptocurrencies
Virtual currencies and cryptocurrencies have gained popularity in recent years and have also become a preferred choice for money launderers due to their pseudonymous nature and global accessibility. Criminals exploit these digital currencies in various ways to launder illicit funds.
3.1.1 Mixing Services and Tumblers.
Mixing services, also known as tumblers, are platforms or services that facilitate the mixing of multiple users' funds to obscure the origin of the funds. These services mix and shuffle transactions, making it challenging to trace the original source of the funds. Examples of such services include CoinJoin, Wasabi Wallet, and Join Market [5].
3.1.2 Darknet Marketplaces.
Darknet marketplaces are hidden online platforms accessible through specialized software like Tor, enabling anonymous transactions using cryptocurrencies (see Figure 1.1). These marketplaces facilitate the sale of illegal goods and services, providing money launderers with an avenue to convert illicit funds into cryptocurrencies and vice versa [6].
Fig. 1.1.
3.2 Online Payment Systems
Online payment systems have become an integral part of the digital economy, allowing individuals and businesses to send and receive funds electronically. However, criminals exploit these platforms for money laundering purposes.
3.2.1 Prepaid Cards and Digital Wallets.
Prepaid cards and digital wallets provide an easy and convenient way to transfer and store funds digitally. Criminals can exploit these platforms by loading illicit funds onto prepaid cards or digital wallets, using them for transactions, and subsequently transferring the funds to different accounts or converting them into other forms of assets [7].
3.2.2 Peer-to-peer Payment Platforms.
Peer-to-peer payment platforms enable individuals to send and receive funds directly without the need for intermediaries. Money launderers can exploit these platforms by conducting peer-to-peer transactions, making it difficult to trace the movement of funds and identify the ultimate beneficiaries [8].
3.3 Digital Identity Theft and Synthetic Identities
Digital identity theft involves stealing personal information and using it to create fraudulent identities. Money launderers can use these synthetic identities to open bank accounts, establish shell companies, and conduct transactions, making it challenging to trace the illicit funds back to the perpetrators [9].
3.4 Trade-based Money Laundering
Trade-based money laundering involves manipulating trade transactions to move funds across borders while disguising the illicit origin of the funds. In the digital age, criminals exploit e-commerce platforms and online marketplaces to inflate or deflate the value of goods or services, facilitating money laundering activities [10].
3.5 E-commerce Platforms and Money Laundering
E-commerce platforms provide a vast marketplace for buying and selling goods and services (see Figure 1.2). Criminals can exploit these platforms by setting up fake businesses, conducting fraudulent transactions, and using the e-commerce infrastructure to legitimize their illicit funds [11].
Fig 1.2.
4 Challenges in Combating Digital Money Laundering
As technology continues to advance, the digital age has brought about significant changes in the way financial transactions are conducted. While this transformation has led to numerous benefits, it has also opened new avenues for criminals to exploit the financial system for illicit purposes, including money laundering. Money laundering is the process of concealing the origins of illegally obtained funds to make them appear legitimate, and with the rise of digital transactions, money launderers have become increasingly adept at exploiting the vulnerabilities of the digital realm.
4.1 Cross-border Transactions and Jurisdictional Issues
Money laundering in the digital age often involves cross-border transactions, taking advantage of the global nature of digital financial systems (see Figure 1.3). Jurisdictional differences and limitations hinder effective cooperation and coordination among law enforcement agencies and regulatory bodies [12].
Fig. 1.3.
4.2 Encryption and Anonymity
The use of encryption and privacy-enhancing technologies makes it challenging for investigators to trace and identify the parties involved in digital money laundering transactions [13]. The anonymous nature of digital currencies and communication platforms hampers efforts to gather evidence and uncover the identities of money launderers.
4.3 Evolving Techniques and Technologies
Money launderers continuously adapt their techniques and exploit emerging technologies to stay ahead of detection efforts. They leverage advancements such as decentralized exchanges, anonymization tools, and alternative cryptocurrencies to obfuscate the illicit origins of funds.
4.4 Lack of Standardized Regulatory Frameworks
4.5 Insider Threats and Regulatory Compliance
Insider threats within financial institutions and regulated entities can facilitate money laundering activities. The need for strong internal controls, compliance programs, and employee training becomes crucial in detecting and preventing digital money laundering [15].
5 Technological Solutions and Innovations
Technological advancements play a vital role in combating digital money laundering. Innovative solutions can help detect suspicious patterns, analyze vast amounts of data, and enhance the efficiency of anti-money laundering efforts. The following are some technological solutions and innovations that contribute to combating digital money laundering.
5.1 Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning
Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) algorithms can analyze large volumes of transactional data and identify patterns indicative of money laundering [16]. These technologies can automatically flag suspicious activities, detect anomalies, and generate alerts, assisting financial institutions and law enforcement agencies in detecting and preventing digital money laundering.
5.2 Blockchain Technology
Blockchain technology, with its decentralized and immutable ledger, has the potential to enhance transparency and traceability in financial transactions. It can provide an auditable record of transactions, making it more difficult for money launderers to hide their activities [17]. Additionally, blockchain-based solutions can streamline Know Your Customer (KYC) processes and facilitate secure information sharing among financial institutions.
5.3 Big Data Analytics
Big Data analytics leverages advanced analytics techniques to process and analyze vast amounts of structured and unstructured data. By examining diverse data sources, including financial transactions, social media, and online platforms, it can identify suspicious patterns and uncover hidden connections that may indicate money laundering activities [18].
5.4 Know Your Customer (KYC) Solutions
KYC solutions have evolved with technological advancements, enabling more robust identification and verification processes. Digital identity verification tools, biometric authentication, and data analytics can strengthen KYC procedures, making it more difficult for money launderers to create fraudulent identities and conduct illicit transactions (see Figure 1.4).
Fig. 1.4.
6 Regulatory and Legal Frameworks
Effective regulatory and legal frameworks are crucial in combating digital money laundering. Governments and international organizations have implemented various measures to address the challenges posed by money laundering in the digital age. The following are key aspects of regulatory and legal frameworks:
6.1 International Cooperation and Information Sharing
International cooperation and information sharing among countries play a vital role in combating digital money laundering. Collaboration between law enforcement agencies, financial intelligence units, and regulatory bodies enables the exchange of information, intelligence, and best practices to enhance the effectiveness of anti-money laundering efforts [19].
6.2 Regulatory Initiatives and Compliance Measures
Regulatory bodies have implemented initiatives and compliance measures to mitigate the risks of digital money laundering. These include KYC and Customer Due Diligence (CDD) requirements, suspicious transaction reporting obligations, and risk-based approaches to anti-money laundering regulations [20].
6.3 Anti-Money Laundering (AML) Regulations and Obligations
Anti-Money Laundering (AML) regulations and obligations set forth the requirements for financial institutions and designated non-financial businesses to detect, prevent, and report suspicious transactions. These regulations impose obligations such as risk assessments, transaction monitoring, and reporting of suspicious activities to regulatory authorities.
6.4 Data Privacy and Security
Data privacy and security regulations are essential in protecting sensitive information during anti-money laundering investigations. Regulations like the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) aim to ensure the lawful and secure processing of personal data [21] while maintaining the integrity of anti-money laundering efforts.
6.5 International Conventions and Treaties
International conventions and treaties provide a framework for cooperation and coordination among countries in combating money laundering. Conventions such as the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) recommendations establish global standards and facilitate international cooperation.
7 Case Studies: Notable Money Laundering Incidents in the Digital Age
Examining real-world case studies provides valuable insights into the methods and consequences of money laundering in the digital age. The following notable cases highlight the impact and complexities of digital money laundering.
7.1 Silk Road and the Darknet Marketplace
Silk Road was a notorious darknet marketplace that operated on the Tor network, providing an anonymous platform for buying and selling illegal goods and services. Launched in 2011 by Ross Ulbricht, operating under the pseudonym “Dread Pirate Roberts,” Silk Road quickly became one of the most prominent and infamous websites on the dark web. The dark web is a part of the internet that is not indexed by traditional search engines and requires special software, such as the Tor browser, to access [22].
Platform and Pseudonymity: Silk Road operated as a hidden service on the Tor network, which ensured the anonymity of users and made it challenging for law enforcement to trace the physical location of the server. Transactions on the platform were conducted using the digital cryptocurrency Bitcoin, further adding to the difficulty of identifying the parties involved in the transactions.
Illegal Goods and Services: The primary purpose of the Silk Road was to facilitate the anonymous trade of illegal goods and services, particularly drugs. A wide range of drugs, including cannabis, cocaine, ecstasy, and prescription medications, was available for purchase on the platform. Additionally, Silk Road offered other illicit services, such as hacking tools, counterfeit documents, and even hitmen-for-hire (although some of these services may have been scams).
Escrow and Feedback System: To build trust among buyers and sellers, Silk Road implemented an escrow system. When a buyer placed an order, the payment was held in escrow until the transaction was completed satisfactorily. The platform also featured a feedback system, similar to that of e-commerce websites, where users could rate and leave comments about their experiences with vendors.
Investigations and Shutdown: Despite its efforts to remain hidden, Silk Road came under the radar of law enforcement agencies. In October 2013, the FBI seized the server hosting Silk Road and arrested Ross Ulbricht in a public library in San Francisco. Ulbricht was later convicted on multiple charges, including conspiracy to commit money laundering, computer hacking, and conspiracy to commit narcotics trafficking. In May 2015, he was sentenced to life in prison without the possibility of parole.
Impact and Legacy: The case of Silk Road and its subsequent shutdown had significant ramifications for the darknet marketplace ecosystem and the perception of cryptocurrencies. It sheds light on the potential misuse of anonymous platforms and digital currencies for illegal activities, particularly drug trafficking. Additionally, the case raised important legal and ethical questions about internet privacy, government surveillance, and the regulation of digital currencies.
Subsequent Darknet Marketplaces: While Silk Road was shut down, several other darknet marketplaces have emerged since then, indicating the persistent demand for anonymous platforms for illegal trade. Authorities continue to monitor and investigate these marketplaces, seeking to disrupt illegal activities and apprehend those involved in digital money laundering and other criminal schemes.
In summary, Silk Road was a pioneering darknet marketplace that facilitated the anonymous trade of illegal goods and services using Bitcoin. Its case brought attention to the challenges of regulating and policing online marketplaces operating on the dark web. The shutdown of Silk Road and the subsequent investigations highlighted the need for a multidimensional approach, combining regulatory efforts, technological innovations, and international cooperation, to combat digital money laundering and other cyber-crimes effectively.
7.2 Bitfinex and Tether
Bitfinex, a cryptocurrency exchange, and Tether, a stablecoin issuer, were involved in a case where it was alleged that Tether's reserves were insufficient to back the amount of USDT tokens in circulation [23]. The case raised concerns about the potential use of cryptocurrencies for money laundering and the need for transparency and accountability in the digital asset ecosystem.
7.3 Money Mules and Online Fraud
Money mules play a significant role in digital money laundering schemes. They are individuals who are recruited or tricked into transferring illicit funds on behalf of criminals. Online fraud schemes, such as romance scams or business email compromises, exploit unsuspecting individuals to launder money through their bank accounts or digital payment platforms [24].
These case studies illustrate the diverse methods and implications of digital money laundering. They emphasize the importance of regulatory frameworks, technology, and cooperation among stakeholders to detect, prevent, and prosecute money laundering activities in the digital age.
8 Industry Best Practices and Recommendations
To combat digital money laundering effectively, industry stakeholders, including financial institutions, regulatory bodies, and law enforcement agencies, should adopt best practices and implement robust measures. The following recommendations highlight key strategies to mitigate the risks associated with digital money laundering:
8.1 Strengthening Regulatory Oversight
Enhance regulatory frameworks: Continuously update and strengthen anti-money laundering (AML) and counter-terrorist financing (CTF) regulations to address emerging risks in the digital age [11].
Implement robust and standardized regulatory frameworks: Governments and regulatory bodies should establish clear and comprehensive anti-money laundering regulations applicable to both traditional and digital financial services. These regulations should cover virtual currencies, online payment systems, and other emerging technologies used for financial transactions.
Enhance customer due diligence (CDD) procedures: Financial institutions and designated non-financial businesses should conduct thorough customer due diligence to verify the identity of their customers and assess the risk of money laundering. This includes adopting digital identity verification tools and implementing ongoing monitoring of customer transactions [30].
Implement risk-based approaches: Apply risk-based assessments to allocate resources effectively and focus on high-risk areas and entities [25].
8.2 Enhancing Cooperation between Financial Institutions and Law Enforcement
Strengthen public-private partnerships: Collaboration between financial institutions, law enforcement agencies, and regulatory bodies is vital in sharing information and intelligence related to suspicious activities. Establishing channels for open communication and information exchange can significantly improve the effectiveness of anti-money laundering efforts. Collaboration between financial institutions, law enforcement agencies, and regulatory bodies is vital in sharing information and intelligence related to suspicious activities. Establishing channels for open communication and information exchange can significantly improve the effectiveness of anti-money laundering efforts.
Encourage reporting of suspicious activity: Financial institutions should be encouraged to report suspicious transactions promptly to financial intelligence units. Whistleblower protections should be in place to incentivize employees to report potential money laundering activities within their organizations [25].
Conduct regular training and awareness programs: Educate employees on the evolving trends and techniques used in digital money laundering to enhance detection and prevention capabilities [26].
8.3 Investing in Advanced Technological Solutions
Leverage artificial intelligence and machine learning: Deploy advanced analytics tools to detect patterns, anomalies, and suspicious activities in large volumes of data.
Utilize blockchain technology: Explore the potential of blockchain in enhancing transparency, traceability, and integrity of financial transactions [27].
Embrace digital identity verification solutions: Implement secure and efficient digital identity verification tools to enhance customer due diligence and prevent identity theft [28].
8.4 Continuous Training and Education
Promote employee awareness: Provide ongoing training and education programs to employees to enhance their understanding of money laundering risks, emerging trends, and their roles in prevention and detection [28].
Encourage industry certifications: Encourage professionals in the financial sector to obtain certifications related to anti-money laundering, such as Certified Anti-Money Laundering Specialists (CAMS), to enhance their expertise and compliance knowledge [29].
8.5 Emphasizing Risk-based Approach
Implement risk-based approach strategies: Financial institutions should adopt a risk-based approach to anti-money laundering measures, tailoring their procedures to the level of risk posed by customers and transactions. This allows for a more targeted allocation of resources and focuses on higher-risk activities.
Regular risk assessments: Financial institutions should conduct regular risk assessments to identify and mitigate emerging risks related to digital money laundering. These assessments should consider the evolving technological landscape and criminal tactics.
By implementing these best practices and recommendations, stakeholders can enhance their ability to detect, prevent, and mitigate the risks associated with digital money laundering.
9 Importance of Multidimensional Approach
Combating money laundering in the digital age requires a multidimensional approach that encompasses various aspects, including regulatory, technological, and cooperative efforts. A multidimensional approach recognizes the complexity and interconnectedness of money laundering activities and addresses them comprehensively. Here are key reasons why a multidimensional approach is crucial:
Comprehensive Coverage: Money laundering in the digital age involves diverse techniques, technologies, and actors. A multidimensional approach ensures that all relevant aspects are addressed, leaving no gaps in the preventive and investigative measures [31].
Adaptability to Evolving Methods: Criminals constantly evolve their money laundering techniques in response to technological advancements and regulatory measures. A multidimensional approach allows for flexibility and adaptation to emerging trends, enabling stakeholders to stay ahead of evolving money laundering methods.
The Synergy of Efforts: Different stakeholders, including governments, financial institutions, law enforcement agencies, and international organizations, each play a unique role in combating money laundering. A multidimensional approach encourages collaboration, information sharing, and coordinated efforts among these stakeholders, creating synergies that enhance the overall effectiveness of anti-money laundering measures [25].
Holistic Risk Management: Money laundering risks are multidimensional, encompassing legal, technological, operational, and reputational aspects. A multidimensional approach enables a holistic assessment of these risks and facilitates the implementation of appropriate risk mitigation strategies across all dimensions.
Enhanced Detection and Prevention: Money laundering activities often involve complex networks and sophisticated techniques. By utilizing a multidimensional approach that combines regulatory oversight, advanced technologies, and cooperative efforts, stakeholders can enhance their ability to detect and prevent illicit financial flows more effectively.
Global Coordination: Money laundering is a transnational issue that requires international cooperation and coordination. A multidimensional approach facilitates global collaboration, information sharing, and alignment of regulatory frameworks, enabling a unified response to money laundering activities across borders [32].
Future Readiness: The digital landscape continues to evolve rapidly, and money laundering techniques will evolve with it. A multidimensional approach ensures that stakeholders remain proactive and future-ready, equipped to adapt to emerging risks and technological advancements.
By adopting a multidimensional approach, society can address the challenges of money laundering in the digital age more effectively. It enables stakeholders to harness the collective power of regulatory frameworks, innovative technologies, industry best practices, and international cooperation, resulting in a comprehensive and resilient defense against digital money laundering.
10 Conclusion
Money laundering techniques have evolved in the digital age, presenting new challenges for governments, financial institutions, and law enforcement agencies. The digital transformation of financial transactions has provided money launderers with opportunities to exploit the anonymity, speed, and cross-border nature of digital transactions.
This article has explored various money laundering techniques prevalent in the digital age, including the use of virtual currencies, online payment systems, digital identity theft, trade-based money laundering, and e-commerce platforms. These techniques allow criminals to obscure the origin, ownership, and destination of illicit funds, making detection and tracing more difficult.
The challenges in combating digital money laundering are substantial. Cross-border transactions and jurisdictional issues complicate international cooperation and information sharing. The use of encryption and anonymizing technologies hinders the traceability of transactions. Criminals continually adapt to emerging technologies and exploit regulatory gaps. Furthermore, insider threats and compliance with regulatory frameworks pose additional challenges.
To effectively combat digital money laundering, stakeholders must implement technological solutions and innovations. Artificial intelligence and machine learning can enhance detection capabilities, while blockchain technology can provide transparency and traceability. Big data analytics and robust Know Your Customer (KYC) solutions contribute to identifying suspicious patterns and verifying identities.
Regulatory and legal frameworks play a crucial role in combating digital money laundering. International cooperation and information sharing are essential for effective investigations and enforcement. Implementing strong regulatory oversight, enhancing public-private partnerships, and investing in advanced technologies are crucial steps toward mitigating the risks associated with digital money laundering.
Industry best practices and recommendations further strengthen prevention and detection efforts. Strengthening regulatory frameworks, promoting cooperation between financial institutions and law enforcement, investing in advanced technological solutions, and continuous training and education are key strategies for combating digital money laundering.
In conclusion, addressing the challenges posed by money laundering in the digital age requires a comprehensive and multidimensional approach. By implementing robust regulatory frameworks, leveraging technological advancements, promoting cooperation among stakeholders, and adopting best practices, society can enhance its ability to detect, prevent, and disrupt digital money laundering activities.
11 Declaration of Competing Interest
I declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this article.
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Index Terms
- Counter Measures to Combat Money Laundering in the New Digital Age
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Publication History
Published: 20 June 2024
Online AM: 09 October 2023
Accepted: 14 September 2023
Revised: 10 September 2023
Received: 14 June 2023
Published in DTRAP Volume 5, Issue 2
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