Deceived by Immersion: A Systematic Analysis of Deceptive Design in Extended Reality
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Theoretical Background and Motivation
2.1 Harms of Deceptive Design in Non-XR and XR Environments
2.2 Expanding Deceptive Design Taxonomies and Characteristics
3 Methodology
3.1 Systematic Analysis of the Literature
3.1.1 Databases, Search Queries, and Duplicate Removal.
Database | Search Query |
---|---|
The ACM Guide to Computing Literature* | Abstract: [(“dark patterns” OR “dark pattern” OR “deceive” OR “deceptive” OR “manipulative” OR “abusive”) AND (“extended reality” OR “virtual reality” OR “augmented reality” OR “mixed reality”)] |
Scopus | [ABS** (“dark pattern”) OR ABS (“dark patterns”) OR ABS (“deceive”) OR ABS (“deceptive”) OR ABS (“manipulative”) OR ABS (“abusive”)] AND [ABS (“extended reality”) OR ABS (“virtual reality”) OR ABS (“augmented reality”) OR ABS (“mixed reality”)] AND (LIMIT-TO (DOCTYPE, “cp”) OR LIMIT-TO (DOCTYPE, “ar”) OR LIMIT-TO (DOCTYPE, “re”) OR LIMIT-TO (DOCTYPE, “ch”)] AND (LIMIT-TO (LANGUAGE, “English”)] |
IEEE Xplore* | ([(“Abstract”:“dark pattern”) OR (“Abstract”:“dark patterns”) OR (“Abstract”:“deceive”) OR (“Abstract”:“deceptive”) OR (“Abstract”:“manipulative”) OR (“Abstract”:“abusive”)] AND [(“Abstract”:“extended reality”) OR (“Abstract”:“virtual reality”) OR (“Abstract”:“augmented reality”) OR (“Abstract”:“mixed reality”)] |
JSTOR* | [(“dark pattern”) OR (“dark patterns”) OR (“deceive”) OR (“deceptive”) OR (“manipulative”) OR (“abusive”)] AND [(“extended reality”) OR (“virtual reality”) OR (“augmented reality”) OR (“mixed reality”)] AND la:(eng OR en) |
3.1.2 Screening and Eligibility Scoping.
3.2 Thematic Synthesis Approach
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Database (Count) | Publication Type (Count) | Metrics (Average) | Contribution Type (Count) | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Year | Total | ACM* | IEEE* | Scopus | Other** | Conference | Journal | Workshop | Pages | Authors | Citations | Empirical | Artifact | Theory | Literature | Argument |
2012 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 16 | 13 | 7 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
2018 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 17 | 4 | 85 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
2020 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 15 | 4 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
2021 | 4 | 2 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 17.5 | 3.3 | 7.5 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 |
2022 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 1 | 0 | 5 | 3.8 | 2.7 | 0.5 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 5 |
13 | 4 | 1 | 7 | 6 | 5 | 3 | 5 | 10.8 | 3.8 | 9.7 | 1 | 5 | 1 | 1 | 5 |
Reference | Nijholt et al. [57] | Lebeck et al. [38] | Torstensson et al. [81] | Schlembach and Clewer [67] | Lee et al. [39] | Mhaidli and Schaub [51] | Ramirez et al. [64] | Krauß [36] | Cummings and Shore [12] | Buck and McDonnell [8] | Bonnail et al. [5] | Su et al. [73] | Franklin [20] | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Year | Themes (T)/Sub-themes | 2012 | 2018 | 2020 | 2021 | 2021 | 2021 | 2021 | 2022 | 2022 | 2022 | 2022 | 2022 | 2022 |
XR Effects | T1: Adverse effects of user experience | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) |
T2: Exacerbated user manipulation: | ||||||||||||||
T2.1: the illusion of objectivity in XR experience | – | – | – | – | – | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | – | – | – | – | – | |
T2.2: obscuring reality, disguising risks | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | |
T2.3: data fuels privacy risks and manipulation | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | – | – | |
T2.4: undesired access, undesired data use | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | – | – | – | – | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | |
T2.5: insecurity worsens user manipulation and privacy concerns | – | – | – | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | – | – | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | |
T2.6: persistent exposure to manipulation | – | – | – | – | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | – | – | ||
Strategies | T3: Psychological manipulation: | |||||||||||||
T3.1: false memory implantation | – | – | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | – | – | – | – | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | – | |
T3.2: artificial prosthetic memory and empathy-based manipulation | – | – | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | – | – | – | – | – | |
T3.3: hyperpersonalization | – | – | – | – | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | – | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | – | – | |
T4: Reality distortion | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | – | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | |
T5: User perception tricking: | ||||||||||||||
T5.1: blurry boundary between virtual and reality | – | – | – | – | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | – | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | – | – | |
T5.2: perception hacking | – | – | – | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | – | – | – | – | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | |
Risks | T6 Privacy and security risks | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | – | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – |
T7: Changes in views, beliefs, morals, and politics | – | – | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | |
T8: Manipulation prevention techniques: | ||||||||||||||
T8.1: prevent false memories and empathy-based manipulation | – | – | – | – | – | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | – | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | – | |
T8.2: security and privacy recommendations | – | – | – | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | |
T8.3: call for research efforts | – | – | – | – | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | – | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | |
T8.4: improve user literacy | – | – | – | – | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | – | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | \({\boldsymbol{\checkmark}}\) | – | – |
4 Results
4.1 RQ1: Overview of Deceptive Design Definitions in XR Research
4.2 RQ2: How Could XR Amplify the Effects of Deceptive Design?
4.2.1 T1: Adverse Effects of User Experience.
4.2.2 T2: XR Exacerbates User Manipulation.
4.3 RQ3: What Deceptive Design Strategies Can Be Present in XR?
4.3.1 T3: Psychological Manipulation.
4.3.2 T4: Reality Distortion.
4.3.3 T5: Tricking User Perception.
4.4 RQ4: What Risks Could XR Deceptive Design Pose to Users?
4.4.1 T6: XR Deceptive Design Worsens Privacy and Security Risks.
4.4.2 T7: XR Deceptive Design Leads to Changes in Users’ Views, Beliefs, Morals, and Politics.
4.4.3 T8: XR Manipulation Prevention Techniques.
5 Discussion and Takeaways
5.1 Comparing Deceptive Design in XR and Other Platforms
5.2 Future Research Directions in XR Deceptive Design
5.2.1 A Better Understanding of Deceptive Design in XR.
5.2.2 A More Transparent Awareness of XR Data Use Practices.
5.2.3 A Deeper Education on Deceptive Design Practices in XR.
5.3 Implications to Designers
5.4 Implications to Policymakers
5.5 Limitations
6 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
Footnotes
References
Index Terms
- Deceived by Immersion: A Systematic Analysis of Deceptive Design in Extended Reality
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- Editors:
- David Atienza,
- Michela Milano
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