Physical Modeling of the Stability of a Revetment Breakwater Built on Reclaimed Coral Calcareous Sand Foundation in the South China Sea—Regular Wave
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Experimental Setup
3. Results Analysis
3.1. Wave Profiles
3.2. Displacement of Breakwater and Overtopping
3.3. Impact Pressure on the Revetment Breakwater
3.4. Pore Pressure in the Reclaimed Coral Sand Foundation
4. Analysis of Affecting Factors
4.1. Effect of Tidal Level
4.2. Effect of Wave Period
4.3. Effect of Armor Blocks
4.4. Effect of Foundation Density
5. Conclusions
- The maximum final settlement of the revetment breakwater is only 6 mm if it is built on loose coral sand foundation. This magnitude of displacement will not cause irreparable damage to the revetment breakwater.
- Pore pressure in the coral sand foundation basically could only accumulate in the first 10 cycles of wave impacting. The maximum excess pore pressure in the loose reclaimed carol sand foundation is only 1.5 kPa. No softening or liquefaction occurs in the reclaimed coral sand foundation. This is a favorable condition for the stability of the revetment breakwater.
- The accumulative volume of the overtopping water in 4 h is about 1.45 m3 per sectional meter under the extreme wave impacting. This overtopped sea water would cause fatal ecological disasters to the artificial islands in the South China Sea.
- The wave will bring greater threat to the stability of the revetment breakwater if the tide level is higher, the foundation is looser, and the wave period is longer. Accropodes could significantly enhance the stability of the revetment breakwater under severe wave impacting.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Wu, J.X. Collapse Analysis of Lianyungang West Breakwater; National Library Collection: Beijing, China, 1957. (In Chinese)
- Gu, X.Y. Review and prospects of marine engineering geology. J. Eng. Geol. 2000, 8, 40–45. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- Zen, K.; Umehara, Y.; Finn, W.D.L. A case study of the wave-induced liquefact ion of sand layers under the damaged breakwater. In Proceedings of the Third Canadian Conference on Marine Geotechnical engineering, St. John’s, NL, Canada, 18 July 1986. [Google Scholar]
- Medina, L.E.; Allsop, N.W.H.; Dimakopoulos, A.; Bruce, T. Conjectures on the Failure of the OWC Breakwater at Mutriku. In Proceedings of the Coastal Structures and Solutions to Coastal Disasters Joint Conference, Boston, MA, USA, 9–11 September 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Guan, F.C.; Xie, Q.H. Statistical characteristics of typhoons in the South China Sea. Mar. Sci. Bull. 1984, 3, 21–29. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- Mizutani, N.; Mostafa, A.M. Nonlinear wave-induced seabed instability around coastal structures. Coast. Eng. J. 1998, 40, 131–160. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, L.F.; Lin, P.; Chang, K.A.; Sakakiyama, T. Numerical modelling of wave interaction with porous structures. J. Waterw. Port Coast. Ocean Eng. 1999, 125, 322–330. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jeng, D.S.; Cha, D.F.; Lin, Y.S.; Hu, P.S. Wave-induced pore pressure around a composite breakwater. Ocean Eng. 2001, 28, 1413–1435. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tsai, C.P.; Chen, H.B.; Lee, F.C. Wave transformation over submerged permeable breakwater on porous bottom. Ocean Eng. 2006, 33, 1623–1643. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hur, D.S.; Kim, C.H.; Kim, D.S.; Yoon, J.S. Simulation of the nonlinear dynamic interactions between waves, a submerged breakwater and the seabed. Ocean Eng. 2008, 35, 511–522. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hanzawa, M.; Matsumoto, A.; Tanaka, H. Stability of wave-dissipating concrete blocks of detached breakwaters against tsunami. Coast. Eng. Proc. 2012, 33, 24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sawada, Y.; Miyake, M. Numerical analysis on stability of caisson-type breakwaters under tsunami-induced seepage. Transp. Infrastruct. Geotechnol. 2015, 2, 120–138. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Guler, H.G.; Arikawa, T.; Oei, T.; Yalciner, A.C. Performance of rubble mound breakwaters under tsunami attack, a case study: Haydarpasa Port, Istanbul, Turkey. Coast. Eng. 2015, 104, 43–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ye, J.H.; Jeng, D.S.; Wang, R.; Zhu, C.Q. Validation of a 2-D semi-coupled numerical model for fluid-structure-seabed interaction. J. Fluids Struct. 2013, 42, 333–357. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ye, J.H.; Jeng, D.S.; Wang, R.; Zhu, C.Q. A 3-D semi-coupled numerical model for fluid-structures-seabed-interaction (FSSI-CAS 3D): Model and verification. J. Fluids Struct. 2013, 40, 148–162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- He, K.P.; Huang, T.K.; Ye, J.H. Stability analysis of a composite breakwater at Yantai port, China: An application of FSSI-CAS-2D. Ocean Eng. 2018, 168, 95–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Johnson, R.R.; Mansard, E.P.; Ploeg, J. Effects of wave grouping on breakwater stability. In Coastal Engineering; ASCE: Reston, VA, USA, 1978; Volume 1978, pp. 2228–2243. [Google Scholar]
- Yagci, O.; Kapdasli, S.; Cigizoglu, H.K. The stability of the antifer units used on breakwaters in case of irregular placement. Ocean Eng. 2004, 31, 1111–1127. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, Y.; Lin, M. Regular and irregular wave impacts on floating body. Ocean Eng. 2012, 42, 93–101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Jensen, T.; Andersen, H.; Grønbech, J. Breakwater stability under regular and irregular wave attack. In Coastal Engineering; ASCE: Reston, VA, USA, 1997; pp. 1679–1692. [Google Scholar]
- Galland, J.C. Rubble mound breakwater stability under oblique waves: An experimental study. In Coastal Engineering; ASCE: Reston, VA, USA, 1995; pp. 1061–1074. [Google Scholar]
- Kirkgoz, M.S. Shock pressure of breaking waves on vertical walls. J. Water Way Port Coast. Ocean Div. 1982, 108, 81–95. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kirkgoz, M.S. Breaking wave impact on vertical and sloping structures. Ocean Eng. 1995, 22, 35–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, Y.L.; Wang, H.F.; Lu, Y. Experimental analysis of the influence of wave period on stability of breakwater armor block. Coast. Eng. 2012, 3, 364–371. [Google Scholar]
- Vicinanza, D.; Contestabile, P.; Nørgaard, J.; Lykke-Andersen, T. Innovative rubble mound breakwaters for overtopping wave energy conversion. Coast. Eng. 2014, 88, 154–170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Christensen, E.D.; Bingham, H.B.; Skou Friis, A.P.; Larsen, A.K.; Jensen, K.L. An experimental and numerical study of floating breakwaters. Coast. Eng. 2018, 137, 43–58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gürer, S.; Cevik, E.; Yüksel, Y. Stability of tetrapod breakwaters for different placing methods. J. Coast. Res. 2005, 21, 464–471. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Verhagen, H.J.; Reedijk, B.; Muttray, M. The effect of foreshore slope on breakwater stability. In Coastal Engineering 2006; World Scientific: Singapore, 2007; pp. 4828–4840. [Google Scholar]
- Martinelli, L.; Ruol, P.; Volpato, M.; Favaretto, C.; Castellino, M.; De Girolamo, P.; Sammarco, P. Experimental investigation on non-breaking wave forces and overtopping at the recurved parapets of vertical breakwaters. Coast. Eng. 2018, 141, 52–67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shafieefar, M.; Shekari, M.R.; Hofland, B. Influence of toe berm geometry on stability of reshaping berm breakwaters. Coast. Eng. 2020, 157, 103636. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aniel-Quiroga, Í.; Vidal, C.; Lara, J.L.; González, M.; Sainz, Á. Stability of rubble-mound breakwaters under tsunami first impact and overflow based on laboratory experiments. Coast. Eng. 2018, 135, 39–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aniel-Quiroga, Í.; Vidal, C.; Lara, J.L.; González, M. Pressures on a rubble-mound breakwater crown-wall for tsunami impact. Coast. Eng. 2019, 152, 103522. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pillai, K.; Etemad-Shahidi, A.; Lemckert, C. Wave overtopping at berm breakwaters: Experimental study and development of prediction formula. Coast. Eng. 2017, 130, 85–102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ehsani, M.; Moghim, M.N.; Shafieefar, M. An experimental study on the hydraulic stability of Icelandic-Type berm breakwaters. Coast. Eng. 2020, 156, 103599. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sumer, B.M. Liquefaction around marine structures. In Proceedings of the Coastal Structures 2007—5th Coastal Structures International Conference, CST07, Venice, Italy, 2–4 July 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Ye, J.H.; Jeng, D.S.; Chan, A.H.C.; Wang, R.; Zhu, Q.C. 3D integrated numerical model for fluid-structures-seabed interaction (FSSI): Loosely deposited seabed foundation. Soil Dyn. Earthq. Eng. 2017, 92, 239–252. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chávez, V.; Mendoza, E.; Silva, R.; Silva, A.; Losada, M. An experimental method to verify the failure of coastal structures by wave induced liquefaction of clayey soils. Coast. Eng. 2017, 123, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- JTS154-1-2011. Code of Design and Construction of Breakwaters; Ministry of Transport of China: Beijing, China, 2011. (In Chinese)
- Department of Army US Army Corps of Engineers. Coastal Engineering Manual, Engineer Manual 1110-2-1100 (in 6 Volumes); Department of Army US Army Corps of Engineers: Washington, DC, USA, 2002. [Google Scholar]
- Hughes, S.A. Physical Models and Laboratory Techniques in Coastal Engineering; World Scientific: Singapore, 1993. [Google Scholar]
- Ikeno, M.; Mori, N.; Tanaka, H. Experimental study on tsunami force and impulsive force by a drifter under breaking bore like Tsunamis. Coast. Eng. J. 2001, 48, 846–850. [Google Scholar]
Sensor No. | W1 | W2 | W3 | W4 | W5 | W6 | W7 | W8 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Location (m) | 26.95 | 29.95 | 32.95 | 35.95 | 38.95 | 41.95 | 44.67 | 47.35 |
Material | Elasticity Modulus (MPa) | Permeability (m/s) | D50 (mm) |
---|---|---|---|
Concrete | 450 | 0 | - |
Calcareous Sand | 30 | 2.0 × 10−5 | 0.54 |
Sand–Gravel | 50 | 6.8 × 10−4 | 2 |
Gravel | 80 | 1.0 × 10−1 | 15 |
Test No. | Dry Density * (kg/m3) | SWL (m) | Wave Height (m) | Wave Period (s) | Armor Blocks | Time (h) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 1320 | 0.48 | 0.19 | 3.0 | No | 2 |
2 | 1320 | 0.71 | 0.30 | 2.2 | No | 2 |
3 | 1320 | 0.71 | 0.30 | 3.0 | No | 4 |
4 | 1320 | 0.71 | 0.30 | 3.0 | Accropodes | 2 |
5 | 1320 | 0.71 | 0.30 | 3.0 | Rubbles | 2 |
6 | 1320 | 0.71 | 0.30 | 3.0 | Accropodes + Rubbles | 2 |
7 | 1500 | 0.71 | 0.30 | 3.0 | No | 2 |
Test No. | Test 1 | Test 2 | Test 3 | Test 4 | Test 5 | Test 6 | Test 7 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Displacement-x (mm) | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.5 |
Displacement-z (mm) | −0.2 | −3.0 | −6.0 | −0.4 | −1.1 | −0.3 | 0.3 |
Overtopping (m3/(m·h)) | 0 | 0.1695 | 0.3578 | 0.9136 | 0.9921 | 0.8990 | 0.3219 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
He, K.; Ye, J. Physical Modeling of the Stability of a Revetment Breakwater Built on Reclaimed Coral Calcareous Sand Foundation in the South China Sea—Regular Wave. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2325. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11052325
He K, Ye J. Physical Modeling of the Stability of a Revetment Breakwater Built on Reclaimed Coral Calcareous Sand Foundation in the South China Sea—Regular Wave. Applied Sciences. 2021; 11(5):2325. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11052325
Chicago/Turabian StyleHe, Kunpeng, and Jianhong Ye. 2021. "Physical Modeling of the Stability of a Revetment Breakwater Built on Reclaimed Coral Calcareous Sand Foundation in the South China Sea—Regular Wave" Applied Sciences 11, no. 5: 2325. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11052325