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{{Redirect|Otherism|the philosophical concept|Other (philosophy)}}
{{About||the concept in behavioral ecology|Altruism (biology)|the ethical doctrine|Altruism (ethics)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=
[[File:Belisaire demandant l'aumone Jacques-Louis David.jpg|thumb|Giving [[alms]] to the poor is often considered an altruistic action.]]
'''Altruism''' is the [[moral principle|principle]] and [[moral behavior|practice]] of concern for the [[well-being]] and/or [[happiness]] of other [[human]]s or animals
The word ''altruism'' was
|1={{cite web |title=altruism (n .) |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=altruism |work=Online Etymology Dictionary |publisher=Douglas Harper |access-date=27 May 2021}}
|2={{cite book |last=Teske |first=Nathan |title=Political Activists in America: The Identity Construction Model of Political Participation |date=2009|publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press |location=University Park, Pa. |isbn=978-0-271-03546-8|page=101|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7B38I2UEPa0C}}
}}</ref> He derived it from the Italian {{lang|it|altrui}}, which in turn was derived from Latin {{lang|la|alteri}}, meaning "[[alterity|other people]]" or "somebody else".<ref>{{cite book|last=Ciciloni|first=Ferdinando|title=A Grammar of the Italian Language|date=1825|publisher=John Murray|location=London|page=[https://archive.org/details/agrammaritalian00cicigoog/page/n81 64]|url=https://archive.org/details/agrammaritalian00cicigoog}}</ref>
Altruism, as observed in populations of organisms, is when an individual performs an action at a cost to
Altruism can be distinguished from feelings of [[loyalty]] or concern for the [[common good]]. The latter are predicated upon social relationships, whilst altruism does not consider relationships. Whether "true" altruism is possible in human psychology is a subject of debate. The theory of [[psychological egoism]] suggests that no act of [[sharing]], [[Helping behavior|helping]], or [[Self-sacrifice|sacrificing]] can be truly altruistic, as the actor may receive an intrinsic reward in the form of personal [[gratification]]. The validity of this argument depends on whether such [[Motivation#Incentive theories: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation|intrinsic rewards]] qualify as "benefits".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=May |first=Joshua |title=Altruism and Psychological Egoism |url=https://philpapers.org/browse/altruism-and-psychological-egoism |website=PhilPapers.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=ENVS203: Altruism |url=https://learn.saylor.org/mod/page/view.php?id=8333 |access-date=2024-05-05 |website=Saylor Academy}}</ref>
The term ''[[altruism (ethics)|altruism]] can''
[[Effective altruism]] is the use of evidence and reason to determine the most effective ways to benefit others.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is effective altruism? {{!}} Effective Altruism |url=https://www.effectivealtruism.org/articles/introduction-to-effective-altruism |access-date=2024-05-05 |website=effectivealtruism.org}}</ref>
==The notion of altruism ==
The concept of altruism has a history in [[Philosophy|philosophical]] and [[Ethics|ethical]] thought. The term was coined in the 19th century by the founding [[sociologist]] and [[philosopher of science]] [[Auguste Comte]], and has become a major topic for [[psychologists]] (especially [[evolutionary psychology]] researchers), [[evolutionary biologists]], and [[ethology|ethologists]]. Whilst ideas about altruism from one field can affect the other fields, the different methods and focuses of these fields always lead to different perspectives on altruism. In simple terms, altruism is caring about the welfare of other people and acting to help them, above oneself.
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**:A tendency towards reciprocity implies that people feel obligated to respond if someone helps them. This has been used by charities that give small gifts to potential donors hoping to induce reciprocity. Another method is to announce publicly that someone has given a large donation. The tendency to reciprocate can even generalize, so people become more helpful toward others after being helped. On the other hand, people will avoid or even retaliate against those perceived not to be cooperating. People sometimes mistakenly fail to help when they intended to, or their helping may not be noticed, which may cause unintended conflicts. As such, it may be an optimal strategy to be slightly forgiving of and have a slightly generous interpretation of non-cooperation.<ref name=AEP1/>
**:People are more likely to cooperate on a task if they can communicate with one another first. This may be due to better cooperativeness assessments or promises exchange. They are more cooperative if they can gradually build trust instead of being asked to give extensive help immediately. Direct reciprocity and cooperation in a group can be increased by changing the focus and incentives from intra-group competition to larger-scale competitions, such as between groups or against the general population. Thus, giving grades and promotions based only on an individual's performance relative to a small local group, as is common, may reduce cooperative behaviors in the group.<ref name=AEP1/>
** Indirect reciprocity.<ref>{{cite journal |
** [[Strong reciprocity]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gintis |first=Herbert |author-link=Herbert Gintis|title=Strong Reciprocity and Human Sociality|journal=[[Journal of Theoretical Biology]]|volume=206|issue=2|date=September 2000|pmid=10966755|pages=169–179|doi=10.1006/jtbi.2000.2111|bibcode=2000JThBi.206..169G |hdl=10419/105717|hdl-access=free|citeseerx=10.1.1.335.7226 |s2cid=9260305 }}</ref> This form of reciprocity is expressed by people who invest more resources in cooperation and punishment than what is deemed optimal based on established theories of altruism.
** Pseudo-reciprocity.<ref>{{cite book | chapter=By-product Benefits, Reciprocity, and Pseudoreciprocity in Mutualism|editor-last=Hammerstein | editor-first=Peter | title=Genetic and Cultural Evolution of Cooperation | publisher=MIT Press | date=2003 |pages=203–222 | isbn=978-0-262-08326-3 | doi=10.7551/mitpress/3232.003.0013}}</ref> An organism behaves altruistically and the recipient does not reciprocate but has an increased chance of acting in a way that is selfish but also as a byproduct benefits the altruist.
* [[Signalling theory|Costly signaling]] and the [[handicap principle]].<ref>{{
:Hunters who [[Sharing|share]] meat display a costly signal of ability. The research found that good hunters have higher reproductive success and more adulterous relations even if they receive no more of the hunted meat than anyone else. Similarly, holding large feasts and giving large donations are ways of demonstrating one's resources. [[Hero
[[File:FEMA - 15337 - Photograph by Andrea Booher taken on 09-10-2005 in Texas.jpg|thumb|Volunteers assist Hurricane victims at the [[Houston Astrodome]], following [[Hurricane Katrina]].]]
:Both indirect reciprocity and costly signaling depend on reputation value and tend to make similar predictions. One is that people will be more helpful when they know that their helping behavior will be communicated to people they will interact with later, publicly announced, discussed, or observed by someone else. This has been documented in many studies. The effect is sensitive to subtle cues, such as people being more helpful when there were stylized eyespots instead of a logo on a computer screen. {{dubious|reason=failed to replicate: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8494318/|date=July 2023}} Weak reputational cues such as eyespots may become unimportant if there are stronger cues present and may lose their effect with continued exposure unless reinforced with real reputational effects.<ref name=AEP1/> Public displays such as public weeping for dead celebrities and participation in demonstrations may be influenced by a desire to be seen as generous. People who know that they are publicly monitored sometimes even wastefully donate the money they know is not needed by the recipient because of reputational concerns.<ref name="AEP2">{{Cite book | last1=Iredal|first1=Wendy | last2=van Vugt|first2=Mark |chapter=Altruism as showing off: a signaling perspective on promoting green behavior and acts of kindness | editor1-last = Roberts | doi = 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199586073.001.0001 | editor1-first = S. Craig | title = Applied Evolutionary Psychology | year = 2011 | publisher = Oxford University Press| isbn = 978-0-19-958607-3 }}</ref>
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The benefits for the altruist may be increased, and the costs reduced by being more altruistic towards certain groups. Research has found that people are more altruistic to kin than to no-kin, to friends than strangers, to those attractive than to those unattractive, to non-competitors than competitors, and to members in-groups than to members of out-groups.<ref name=AEP1/>
The study of altruism was the initial impetus behind [[George R. Price]]'s development of the [[Price equation]], a mathematical equation used to study genetic evolution. An interesting example of altruism is found in the cellular [[slime mould]]s, such as ''[[Dictyostelid|Dictyostelium]] mucoroides''. These protists live as individual [[amoeba]]e until starved, at which point they aggregate and form a multicellular fruiting body in which some cells sacrifice themselves to promote the survival of other cells in the fruiting body.<ref>{{
Selective investment theory proposes that close social bonds, and associated emotional, cognitive, and neurohormonal mechanisms, evolved to facilitate long-term, high-cost altruism between those closely depending on one another for survival and reproductive success.<ref>{{cite journal
Such cooperative behaviors have sometimes been seen as arguments for left-wing politics, for example, by the Russian [[Zoology|zoologist]] and [[Anarchism|anarchist]] [[Peter Kropotkin]] in his 1902 book ''[[Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution]]'' and [[Ethics|Moral Philosopher]] [[Peter Singer]] in his book ''[[A Darwinian Left]]''.
{{
Jorge Moll and [[Jordan Grafman]], neuroscientists at the [[National Institutes of Health]] and LABS-D'Or Hospital Network, provided the first evidence for the neural bases of altruistic giving in normal healthy volunteers, using [[functional magnetic resonance imaging]]. In their research,<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Moll | first1=Jorge | last2=Krueger | first2=Frank | last3=Zahn | first3=Roland | last4=Pardini | first4=Matteo | last5=de Oliveira-Souza | first5=Ricardo | last6=Grafman | first6=Jordan | title=Human fronto–mesolimbic networks guide decisions about charitable donation | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume=103 | issue=42 | date=17 October 2006 | issn=0027-8424 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0604475103 | pages=15623–15628 | pmid=17030808 | pmc=1622872 | bibcode=2006PNAS..10315623M | doi-access=free }}</ref> they showed that both pure monetary rewards and charitable donations activated the [[Mesolimbic pathway|mesolimbic]] reward pathway, a primitive part of the brain that usually responds to food and sex. However, when volunteers generously placed the interests of others before their own by making charitable donations, another [[brain circuit]] was selectively activated: the subgenual cortex/[[septal region]]. These structures {{vague|text=are related to|date=July 2023}} social attachment and bonding in other species. The experiment suggested that altruism is not a higher moral faculty overpowering innate selfish desires, but a fundamental, ingrained, and enjoyable trait in the brain.<ref name="brain">{{cite news
|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/27/AR2007052701056.html
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|access-date=23 April 2010}}</ref> One brain region, the subgenual [[anterior cingulate cortex]]/[[basal forebrain]], contributes to learning altruistic behavior, especially in people with {{clarify|text=trait|reason=what means this nounish adjective?|date=July 2023}} [[empathy]].<ref name="PMID_27528669">{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal |last1 = Lockwood |first1 = Patricia L |last2 = Apps |first2 = Matthew A J |last3 = Valton |first3 = Vincent |last4 = Viding |first4 = Essi |last5 = Roiser |first5 = Jonathan P |year = 2016 |title = Neurocomputational mechanisms of prosocial learning and links to empathy. |journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |quote = . fMRI revealed that activity in a posterior portion of the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex/basal forebrain (sgACC) drives learning only when we are acting in a prosocial context |pmid = 27528669 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1603198113 |volume=113 |issue = 35 |pages=9763–8|pmc = 5024617 |bibcode = 2016PNAS..113.9763L |doi-access = free}}
|2={{lay source |template=cite news |date=
}}</ref> The same study identified {{vague|text=a link between|date=July 2023}} giving to charity and {{clarify|text=the promotion|reason=how? by whom?|date=July 2023}} of social bonding.<ref name="neurons">{{cite news
|url=https://generosityresearch.nd.edu/news/hard-wired-for-giving/
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Bill Harbaugh, a [[University of Oregon]] economist, in an fMRI scanner test conducted with his psychologist colleague Dr. Ulrich Mayr, reached the same conclusions as Jorge Moll and Jordan Grafman about giving to charity, although they were able to divide the study group into two groups: "egoists" and "altruists". One of their discoveries was that, though rarely, even some of the considered "egoists" sometimes gave more than expected because that would help others, leading to the conclusion that there are other factors in charity, such as a person's environment and values.<ref name="neurons"/>
A recent meta-analysis of fMRI studies conducted by Shawn Rhoads, Jo Cutler, and Abigail Marsh analyzed the results of prior studies of generosity in which participants could freely choose to give or not give resources to someone else.<ref>{{
[[Abigail Marsh]] has conducted studies of real-world altruists that have also identified an important role for the [[amygdala]] in human altruism. In real-world altruists, such as people who have donated kidneys to strangers, the amygdala is larger than in typical adults. Altruists' amygdalas are also more responsive than those of typical adults to the sight of others' distress, which is thought to reflect an empathic response to distress.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Marsh |first1=Abigail A. |last2=Stoycos |first2=Sarah A. |last3=Brethel-Haurwitz |first3=Kristin M. |last4=Robinson |first4=Paul |last5=VanMeter |first5=John W. |last6=Cardinale |first6=Elise M. |date=2014-10-21 |title=Neural and cognitive characteristics of extraordinary altruists |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
The International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences defines ''psychological altruism'' as "a motivational state to increase another's welfare". Psychological altruism is contrasted with ''psychological egoism'', which refers to the motivation to increase one's welfare.<ref name="encyclopedia">{{cite encyclopedia|article=Altruism|encyclopedia = International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences|editor-first= William A. Jr. |editor-last = Darity|edition= 2nd |volume = 1|location = Detroit|publisher = Macmillan Reference USA|date= 2008|pages = 87–88}}</ref> In keeping with this, research in real-world altruists, including altruistic kidney donors, bone marrow donors, humanitarian aid workers, and [[
There has been some debate on whether humans are capable of psychological altruism.<ref name="batson3">{{cite book|last=Batson|first=C.|year=2011|title=Altruism in humans|location=New York, N.Y. U.S.|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> Some definitions specify a self-sacrificial nature to altruism and a lack of external rewards for altruistic behaviors.<ref name="prosocial">{{cite book|last=Batson|first= C. Daniel |date=2012|chapter = A history of prosocial behavior research |editor1-first = Arie W.|editor1-last= Kruglanski|editor2-link=Wolfgang Stroebe|editor2-first=Wolfgang|editor2-last = Stroebe|title = Handbook of the history of social psychology |pages = 243–264|location= New York, NY |publisher = Psychology Press|isbn =978-1-84872-868-4 |chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=MOlUSV2koMcC&pg=PA242}}</ref> However, because altruism ultimately benefits the self in many cases, the selflessness of altruistic acts is difficult to prove. The [[social exchange theory]] postulates that altruism only exists when the benefits outweigh the costs to the self.<ref name="noaltruism">{{cite journal |
[[Daniel Batson]], a psychologist, examined this question and argued against the social exchange theory. He identified four significant motives: to ultimately benefit the self (egoism), to ultimately benefit the other person (altruism), to benefit a group (collectivism), or to uphold a moral principle ([[principlism]]). Altruism that ultimately serves selfish gains is thus differentiated from selfless altruism, but the general conclusion has been that [[empathy]]-induced altruism can be genuinely selfless.<ref name="baston2">{{cite book|last1=Batson|first1= C. Daniel|last2= Ahmad|first2= Nadia|last3= Stocks|first3= E. L. |date = 2011|chapter = Four forms of prosocial motivation: Egoism, altruism, collectivism, and principlism|editor-first = David|editor-last =Dunning|title = Social motivation |pages = 103–126|location= New York, NY |publisher = Psychology Press|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=gOB4AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA103|isbn = 978-1-136-84720-2}}</ref> The ''[[empathy-altruism]] hypothesis'' states that psychological altruism exists and is evoked by the empathic desire to help someone suffering. Feelings of empathic concern are contrasted with personal distress, which compels people to reduce their unpleasant emotions and increase their positive ones by helping someone in need. Empathy is thus not selfless since altruism works either as a way to avoid those negative, unpleasant feelings and have positive, pleasant feelings when triggered by others' need for help or as a way to gain social reward or avoid social punishment by helping. People with empathic concern help others in distress even when exposure to the situation could be easily avoided, whereas those lacking in empathic concern avoid allowing it unless it is difficult or impossible to avoid exposure to another's suffering.<ref name="encyclopedia"/>
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Feeling over-taxed by the needs of others has negative effects on health and happiness.<ref name="volunteer5"/> For example, one study on volunteerism found that feeling overwhelmed by others' demands had an even stronger negative effect on mental health than helping had a positive one (although positive effects were still significant).<ref name="overwhelmed">{{cite journal|last1=Schwartz|first1=C.|last2=Meisenhelder|first2=J.|last3=Ma|first3=Y.|last4=Reed|first4=G.|year=2003|title=Altruistic Social Interest Behaviors Are Associated With Better Mental Health|journal=Psychosomatic Medicine|volume=65|issue=5|pages=778–785|doi=10.1097/01.PSY.0000079378.39062.D4|pmid=14508020|citeseerx=10.1.1.529.7780|s2cid=20644442}}</ref>
Older humans were found to have higher altruism.<ref name="w730">{{cite journal | last=Sparrow | first=Erika P. | last2=Swirsky | first2=Liyana T. | last3=Kudus | first3=Farrah | last4=Spaniol | first4=Julia | title=Aging and altruism: A meta-analysis. | journal=Psychology and Aging | publisher=American Psychological Association (APA) | volume=36 | issue=1 | year=2021 | issn=1939-1498 | doi=10.1037/pag0000447 | pages=49–56}}</ref>
====Genetics and environment====▼
Both genetics and environment have been implicated in influencing pro-social or altruistic behavior.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fM7RAgAAQBAJ | title=Prosocial Development: A Multidimensional Approach | isbn=978-0-19-996478-9 | last1=Padilla-Walker | first1=Laura M. | last2=Carlo | first2=Gustavo | date=15 December 2015 | publisher=Oxford University Press }}</ref> Candidate genes include OXTR ([[gene polymorphism|polymorphism]]s in the [[oxytocin receptor]]),<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Singer |first1=Tania |last2=Snozzi |first2=Romana |last3=Bird |first3=Geoffrey |last4=Petrovic |first4=Predrag |last5=Silani |first5=Giorgia |last6=Heinrichs |first6=Markus |last7=Dolan |first7=Raymond J. |title=Effects of oxytocin and prosocial behavior on brain responses to direct and vicariously experienced pain |journal=Emotion |date=December 2008 |volume=8 |issue=6 |pages=781–791 |doi=10.1037/a0014195 |pmid=19102589 |pmc=2672051 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Israel |first1=Salomon |last2=Weisel |first2=Ori |last3=Ebstein |first3=Richard P. |last4=Bornstein |first4=Gary |title=Oxytocin, but not vasopressin, increases both parochial and universal altruism |journal=Psychoneuroendocrinology |date=August 2012 |volume=37 |issue=8 |pages=1341–1344 |doi=10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.02.001 |pmid=22377540 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barraza |first1=Jorge A. |last2=McCullough |first2=Michael E. |last3=Ahmadi |first3=Sheila |last4=Zak |first4=Paul J. |title=Oxytocin infusion increases charitable donations regardless of monetary resources |journal=Hormones and Behavior |date=July 2011 |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=148–151 |doi=10.1016/j.yhbeh.2011.04.008 }}</ref> [[CD38]], [[COMT]], [[DRD4]], [[DRD5]], [[IGF2]], [[AVPR1A]]<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0025274 | doi-access=free | title=AVPR1A Variant Associated with Preschoolers' Lower Altruistic Behavior | date=2011 | last1=Avinun | first1=Reut | last2=Israel | first2=Salomon | last3=Shalev | first3=Idan | last4=Gritsenko | first4=Inga | last5=Bornstein | first5=Gary | last6=Ebstein | first6=Richard P. | last7=Knafo | first7=Ariel | journal=PLOS ONE | volume=6 | issue=9 | pages=e25274 | pmid=21980412 | pmc=3182215 | bibcode=2011PLoSO...625274A }}</ref> and [[GABRB2]].<ref>{{cite journal| pmc=3871336 | pmid=24132092 | doi=10.1098/rsbl.2013.0395 | volume=9 | issue=6 | title=Genes underlying altruism | year=2013 | journal=Biol Lett | page=20130395 | last1 = Thompson | first1 = GJ | last2 = Hurd | first2 = PL | last3 = Crespi | first3 = BJ}}</ref> It is theorized that some of these genes influence altruistic behavior by modulating levels of neurotransmitters such as [[serotonin]] and [[dopamine]].▼
▲Both genetics and environment have been implicated in influencing pro-social or altruistic behavior.<ref>{{cite book |
According to [[Christopher Boehm]], altruistic behaviour evolved as a way of surviving within a group.<ref>https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2011-29744-000</ref>
===Sociology===
{{See also|Public sociology}}
"Sociologists have long been concerned with how to build the good society".<ref name="ASA-AMSS">{{Cite web|url=http://www.asanet.org/sections/altruism.cfm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120503051933/http://asanet.org/sections/altruism.cfm|url-status=dead|
How altruism is framed, organized, carried out, and what motivates it at the group level is an area of focus that sociologists investigate in order to contribute back to the groups it studies and "build the good society". The motivation of altruism is also the focus of study; for example, one study links the occurrence of moral outrage to altruistic compensation of victims.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Thulin|first1=E.W.|author-link2=Cristina Bicchieri|last2=Bicchieri|first2=C.|title=I'm so angry I could help you: Moral outrage as a driver of victim compensation|journal=Social Philosophy & Policy|year=2016|volume=32|issue=2 |pages=146–160|doi=10.1017/S0265052516000145 |s2cid=148548711 }}</ref> Studies show that [[generosity]] in laboratory and in online experiments is contagious – people imitate the generosity they observe in others.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book |last1=Tsvetkova |first1=Milena |last2=Macy |first2=Michael |chapter=The Contagion of Prosocial Behavior and the Emergence of Voluntary-Contribution Communities |title=Social Phenomena: From Data Analysis to Models |date=2015 |pages=117–134 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-14011-7_7 |isbn=978-3-319-14010-0 |publisher=Springer International Publishing
|2={{cite journal |last1=Tagiew |first1=Rustam |last2=Ignatov |first2=Dmitry |title=Gift Ratios in Laboratory Experiments |journal=CEUR Workshop Proceedings |date=2016 |volume=1627 |pages=82–93 |url=http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1627/paper7.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1627/paper7.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}
}}</ref>
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The notion of altruism is modified in such a world-view, since the belief is that such a practice promotes the practitioner's own happiness: "The more we care for the happiness of others, the greater our own sense of well-being becomes" (Dalai Lama).<ref name="Speech by the Dalai Lama"/>
In Buddhism, a person's actions cause karma, which consists of consequences proportional to the moral implications of their actions. Deeds considered to be bad are punished, while those considered to be good are rewarded.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Todd |url=https://college.holycross.edu/faculty/tlewis/PDFs/Altruism_in_Classical_Buddhism.pdf |title=Altruism in World Religions |date=2005 |publisher=Georgetown UNiversity Press |editor-last=Neusner |editor-first=Jacob |location=Washington, D.C. |publication-date=2005 |pages=90|chapter=Chapter 5: Altruism in Classical Bhuddism |editor-last2=Chilton |editor-first2=Bruce D}}</ref>
===Jainism===
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===Christianity===
{{Catholic philosophy}}
[[Thomas Aquinas]] interprets the biblical phrase "You should love your neighbour as yourself"<ref>{{Bibleverse|Leviticus|19}} and {{Bibleverse|Matthew|22}}</ref> as meaning that love for ourselves is the exemplar of love for others.<ref>Thomas Aquinas, ''[[Summa Theologica]]'', II:II Quaestio 25, Article 4</ref> Considering that "the love with which a man loves himself is the form and root of friendship", he quotes Aristotle that "the origin of friendly relations with others lies in our relations to ourselves",.<ref>Aristotle, [[Nicomachean Ethics]] IX.4 1166a1</ref> Aquinas concluded that though we are not bound to love others more than ourselves, we naturally seek the [[common good]], the good of the whole, more than any private good, the good of a part. However, he thought we should love God more than ourselves and our neighbours, and more than our bodily life—since the ultimate purpose of loving our neighbour is to share in eternal [[Beatitudes|beatitude]]: a more desirable thing than bodily well-being. In coining the word "altruism", as stated above, [[Auguste Comte|Comte]] was probably opposing this Thomistic doctrine, which is present in some theological schools within Catholicism. The aim and focus of Christian life is a life that glorifies God, with obeying
Many biblical authors draw a strong connection between love of others and love of God.
▲[[Thomas Aquinas]] interprets "You should love your neighbour as yourself"<ref>{{Bibleverse|Leviticus|19}} and {{Bibleverse|Matthew|22}}</ref> as meaning that love for ourselves is the exemplar of love for others.<ref>Thomas Aquinas, ''[[Summa Theologica]]'', II:II Quaestio 25, Article 4</ref> Considering that "the love with which a man loves himself is the form and root of friendship" he quotes Aristotle that "the origin of friendly relations with others lies in our relations to ourselves",.<ref>Aristotle, [[Nicomachean Ethics]] IX.4 1166a1</ref> Aquinas concluded that though we are not bound to love others more than ourselves, we naturally seek the [[common good]], the good of the whole, more than any private good, the good of a part. However, he thought we should love God more than ourselves and our neighbours, and more than our bodily life—since the ultimate purpose of loving our neighbour is to share in eternal [[Beatitudes|beatitude]]: a more desirable thing than bodily well-being. In coining the word "altruism", as stated above, [[Auguste Comte|Comte]] was probably opposing this Thomistic doctrine, which is present in some theological schools within Catholicism. The aim and focus of Christian life is a life that glorifies God, with obeying christ's command to treat others equally, caring for them and understanding eternity in heaven is what Jesus Resurrection at calvary was all about.
▲Many biblical authors draw a strong connection between love of others and love of God. {{Bibleverse|1 John|4}} states that for one to love God one must love his fellowman, and that hatred of one's fellowman is the same as hatred of God. [[Thomas Jay Oord]] has argued in several books that altruism is but one possible form of love. An altruistic action is not always a loving action. Oord defines altruism as acting for the other's good, and he agrees with feminists who note that sometimes love requires acting for one's own good when the other's demands undermine overall well-being.
German philosopher [[Max Scheler]] distinguishes two ways in which the strong can help the weak. One way is a sincere expression of Christian love, "motivated by a powerful feeling of security, strength, and inner salvation, of the invincible fullness of one's own life and existence".<ref name=Ressentiment>{{cite book|last=Scheler|first=Max|title=Ressentiment|year=1961}}</ref>{{rp|88–89}} Another way is merely "one of the many modern substitutes for love,... nothing but the urge to turn away from oneself and to lose oneself in other people's business".{{r|Ressentiment|pages=95–96}} At its worst, Scheler says, "love for the small, the poor, the weak, and the oppressed is really disguised hatred, repressed envy, an impulse to detract, etc., directed against the opposite phenomena: wealth, strength, power, largesse."{{r|Ressentiment|pages=96–97}}
===Islam===
In
On the topic of donating blood to non-Muslims (a controversial topic within the faith),
For [[Sufism|Sufis]], 'iythar means devotion to others through complete forgetfulness of one's own concerns, where concern for others is deemed as a demand made by [[God in Islam|God]] on the human body, considered to be property of God alone. The importance of 'iythar (
This is similar to the notion of [[chivalry in Islam|chivalry]]. A constant concern for God results in a careful attitude towards people, animals, and other things in this world.<ref name="Neusner2005">{{cite book| last = Neusner| first = Jacob Eds| title = Altruism in World Religions| year = 2005| publisher = Georgetown Univ. Press| location = Washington, D.C.| isbn = 978-1-58901-065-9| pages = 79–80 }}</ref>
===Judaism===
Judaism defines altruism as the desired goal of creation.{{Cn|date=November 2024}} Rabbi [[Abraham Isaac Kook]] stated that love is the most important attribute in humanity.<ref>{{cite book |first2=Ben Zion |last2=Bokser |last1=Kook |first1=Abraham Isaac| title = Abraham Isaac Kook: The lights of penitence, The moral principles, Lights of holiness, essays, letters, and poems|url=https://archive.org/details/abrahamisaackook00benz |url-access=registration | year = 1978| publisher = Paulist Press| isbn = 978-0-8091-2159-5| pages = [https://archive.org/details/abrahamisaackook00benz/page/135 135–136]}}</ref> Love is defined as [[Tzedakah|bestowal]], or giving, which is the intention of altruism. This can be altruism towards humanity that leads to altruism towards the creator or God. [[Kabbalah]] defines God as the force of giving in [[existence]]. Rabbi [[Moshe Chaim Luzzatto]] focused on the "purpose of creation" and how the will of God was to bring creation into perfection and adhesion with this force of giving.<ref>{{cite book| last = Luzzatto| first = Moshe Ḥayyim| title = The way of God| year = 1997| publisher = Feldheim Publishers| isbn = 978-0-87306-769-0| pages = 37–38}}</ref>
Modern [[Kabbalah]] developed by Rabbi [[Yehuda Ashlag]], in his writings about the [[future generation]], focuses on how society could achieve an altruistic social framework.<ref name=Ashlag>{{cite book| last = Ashlag| first = Yehuda| title = Building the Future Society| url = http://www.kabbalah.info/eng/content/view/frame/3811?/eng/content/view/full/3811&main| year = 2006| publisher = Laitman Kabbalah Publishers| location = Thornhill, Canada| isbn = 978-965-7065-34-1 }}</ref>{{rp|120–130}} Ashlag proposed that such a framework is the purpose of creation, and everything that happens is to raise humanity to the level of altruism, love for one another. Ashlag focused on society and its relation to [[divinity]].{{r|Ashlag|pages = 175–180 }}
===Sikhism===
Altruism is essential to the [[Sikhism|Sikh]] religion. The central faith in Sikhism is that the greatest deed anyone can do is to imbibe and live the godly qualities
The fifth [[Guru]], [[
In the late seventeenth century, [[Guru Gobind Singh]] (the tenth Guru in Sikhism), was at war with the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] rulers to protect the people of different faiths when a fellow Sikh, [[Bhai Kanhaiya]], attended the troops of the enemy.<ref name="GobindSingh">{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofthesikh025030mbp/page/n7 |title=A History of the Sikhs |publisher=Oxford University Press|first= Joseph Davey|last= Cunningham |date=1918 |page=ix |access-date=30 November 2018}}</ref> He gave water to both friends and foes who were wounded on the battlefield. Some of the enemy began to fight again and some Sikh warriors were annoyed by Bhai Kanhaiya as he was helping their enemy. Sikh soldiers brought Bhai Kanhaiya before Guru Gobind Singh, and complained of his action that they considered counterproductive to their struggle on the battlefield. "What were you doing, and why?" asked the Guru. "I was giving water to the wounded because I saw your face in all of them", replied Bhai Kanhaiya. The Guru responded, "Then you should also give them ointment to heal their wounds. You were practicing what you were coached in the house of the Guru."
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===Hinduism===
In Hinduism,
The [[Bhagavad Gita]] supports the doctrine of karma yoga (achieving oneness with God through action)
==Philosophy==
{{main|Altruism (ethics)}}
There is a wide range of philosophical views on humans' obligations or motivations to act altruistically. Proponents of [[Altruism (ethics)|ethical altruism]] maintain that individuals are morally obligated to act altruistically.<ref>{{Citation |last=Kraut |first=Richard |title=Altruism |date=2020 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2020/entries/altruism/ |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |access-date=2024-01-16 |edition=Fall 2020 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University}}</ref> The opposing view is [[ethical egoism]], which maintains that moral agents should always act in their own self-interest. Both ethical altruism and ethical egoism contrast with [[utilitarianism]], which maintains that each agent should act in order to maximise the efficacy of their function and the benefit to both themselves and their co-inhabitants.
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===Effective altruism===
{{See also|Effective altruism|Earning to give|Giving What We Can}}
[[Effective altruism]] is a [[philosophy]] and [[social movement]] that uses evidence and reasoning to determine the most effective ways to benefit others.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=MacAskill |first1=William |title=Effective Altruism: Introduction |journal=Essays in Philosophy |date=2017
While a substantial proportion of effective altruists have focused on the [[nonprofit sector]], the philosophy of effective altruism applies more broadly to prioritizing the scientific projects, companies, and policy initiatives which can be estimated to save lives, help people, or otherwise have the biggest benefit.<ref name="doing-good-better">{{cite book|last1=MacAskill|first1=William|title=Doing Good Better|date=2015|publisher=Avery|isbn=978-1-59240-910-5}}</ref> People associated with the movement include philosopher [[Peter Singer]],<ref name="blog.ted.com">{{cite web|last1=Walters|first1=Helen|title=The why and how of effective altruism: Peter Singer's talk visualized|url=http://blog.ted.com/why-how-effective-altruism-peter-singer-visualized/|website=TED Blog|date=19 September 2013}}</ref> Facebook co founder [[Dustin Moskovitz]],<ref name="Washington Post on Dustin Moskovitz and Cari Tuna">{{cite news | url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/billionaire-couple-give-plenty-to-charity-but-they-do-quite-a-bit-of-homework/2014/12/26/19fae34c-86d6-11e4-b9b7-b8632ae73d25_story.html | title=Cari Tuna and Dustin Moskovitz: Young Silicon Valley billionaires pioneer new approach to philanthropy | date=26 December 2014 |
|1={{Cite web|url=https://www.pokerstrategy.com/news/world-of-poker/Liv-Boeree-on-Effective-Altruism_100487/|title=News: Liv Boeree on Effective Altruism|website=
|2={{Cite web|url=http://www.livboeree.com/effective-altruism/|title=Effective Altruism {{!}} Liv Boeree|website=
}}</ref>
== Extreme
===Pathological altruism===
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The term "pathological altruism" was popularised by the book ''[[Pathological Altruism]]''.
Examples include [[Depression (mood)|depression]] and [[Occupational burnout|burnout]] seen in healthcare professionals, an unhealthy focus on others to the detriment of one's own needs, [[animal hoarding
Extreme altruism also known as costly altruism, extraordinary altruism, or heroic behaviours (shall be distinguished from [[
One of the initial concepts was introduced by Wilson in 1976, which he referred to as
The current{{when|date=April 2024}} slow progress in the field is due to general ethical guidelines that restrict exposing research participants to costly or risky decisions.{{
However, current research can only be carried out on a small population that meets the requirements of extreme altruism. Most of the time the research is also via the form of self-report which could lead to self-report biases.{{
=== Characteristics of
* Norms
In 1970, Schwartz hypothesised that extreme altruism is positively related to a
* Enhanced Fear Recognition
Abigail Marsh has described psychopaths as the
* Fast Decisions when Perform Acts of Extreme Altruism
Rand and Epstein explored the behaviours of 51 Carnegie Hero Medal Recipients, demonstrating how extreme altruistic behaviours often stem from system I of the [[Dual process theory|Dual Process Theory]], which leads to rapid and intuitive behaviours.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal |last1=Rand |first1=David G. |last2=Epstein |first2=Ziv G. |title=Risking Your Life without a Second Thought: Intuitive Decision-Making and Extreme Altruism |journal=PLOS
This discovery has led to ethical debates, particularly in the context of living organ donation, where laws regarding this issue differ by country.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-33799-4 |title=Regulations Regarding Living Organ Donation in Europe |date=2013 |last1=Lopp |first1=Leonie |isbn=978-3-642-33798-7 }}{{
* Social
One finding suggests how extreme altruists exhibit lower levels of social discounting as compared to others. With that meaning extreme altruists place a higher value on the welfare of strangers than a typical person does.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vekaria |first1=Kruti M. |last2=Brethel-Haurwitz |first2=Kristin M. |last3=Cardinale |first3=Elise M. |last4=Stoycos |first4=Sarah A. |last5=Marsh |first5=Abigail A. |title=Social discounting and distance perceptions in costly altruism |journal=Nature Human Behaviour |date=28 April 2017 |volume=1 |issue=5 |doi=10.1038/s41562-017-0100 }}</ref>
* Low Social-Economic Status
Analysis of 676 [[Carnegie Hero Fund|Carnegie Hero Award Recipients]]<ref name=":5">{{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Ronald C. |title=Attributes of carnegie medalists performing acts of heroism and of the recipients of these acts |journal=Ethology and Sociobiology |date=September 1996 |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=355–362 |doi=10.1016/S0162-3095(96)00059-3 }}</ref> and another study on 243 rescuing acts<ref name=":6">{{cite journal |last1=Lyons |first1=Minna T. |title=Who are the Heroes? Characteristics of People Who Rescue Others |journal=Journal of Cultural and Evolutionary Psychology |date=September 2005 |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=245–254 |doi=10.1556/JCEP.3.2005.3-4.2 }}</ref> reveal that a significant proportion of rescuers come from lower socio-economic backgrounds. Johnson attributes the distribution to the high-risk occupations that are more prevalent between lower socioeconomic groups.<ref name=":5" /> Another hypothesis proposed by Lyons is that individuals from these groups may perceive they have less to lose when engaging in high-risk extreme altruistic behaviours.<ref name=":6" />
=== Possible
Evolutionary theories such as the kin-selection, reciprocity, vested interest and punishment either contradict or do not fully explain the concept of extreme altruism.<ref name=":7">{{
* Costly Signalling Theory for Extreme Behaviours
Research suggests that males are more likely to engage in heroic and risk-taking behaviours due to a preference among females for such traits.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kelly |first1=Susan |last2=Dunbar |first2=R. I. M. |title=Who dares, wins: Heroism versus altruism in women's mate choice |journal=Human Nature |date=June 2001 |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=89–105 |doi=10.1007/s12110-001-1018-6 |pmid=26192164 }}</ref> These extreme altruistic behaviours could serve to act as an unconscious
* Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis
The empathy altruism hypothesis appears to align with the concept of extreme altruism without contradiction. The hypothesis was supported with further brain scanning research, which indicates how this group of people demonstrate a higher level of empathy concern. The level of empathy concern then triggers activation in specific brain regions, urging the individual to engage in heroic behaviours.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=FeldmanHall |first1=Oriel |last2=Dalgleish |first2=Tim |last3=Evans |first3=Davy |last4=Mobbs |first4=Dean |date=January 2015 |title=Empathic concern drives costly altruism |journal=NeuroImage
* Mistakes and Outliers
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==Digital altruism==
There are three types of digital altruism: (1) "everyday digital altruism", involving expedience, ease, moral engagement, and conformity; (2) "creative digital altruism", involving creativity, heightened moral engagement, and cooperation; and (3) "co-creative digital altruism" involving creativity, moral engagement, and meta cooperative efforts.<ref name="Klisanin"/>
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* {{annotated link|[[Altruria, California]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Bounded rationality]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Charitable organization]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Consideration]]}}
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