Location via proxy:   [ UP ]  
[Report a bug]   [Manage cookies]                
Wikipedia

Drought

For other uses, see Drought (disambiguation).

A drought is a period of drier-than-normal conditions.[1]: 1157  A drought can last for days, months or years. Drought often has large impacts on the ecosystems and agriculture of affected regions, and causes harm to the local economy.[2][3] Annual dry seasons in the tropics significantly increase the chances of a drought developing, with subsequent increased wildfire risks.[4] Heat waves can significantly worsen drought conditions by increasing evapotranspiration.[5] This dries out forests and other vegetation, and increases the amount of fuel for wildfires.[4][6]

xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
Droughts cause a range of impacts and are often worsened by the effects of climate change on the water cycle: a dry riverbed in France; sandstorm in Somaliland due to drought; droughts negatively impact agriculture in Texas; drought and high temperatures worsened the 2020 bushfires in Australia.

Drought is a recurring feature of the climate in most parts of the world, becoming more extreme and less predictable due to climate change, which dendrochronological studies date back to 1900. There are three kinds of drought effects, environmental, economic and social. Environmental effects include the drying of wetlands, more and larger wildfires, loss of biodiversity.

Economic impacts of drought result due to negative disruptions to agriculture and livestock farming (causing food insecurity), forestry, public water supplies, maritime navigation (due to e.g.: lower water levels), electric power supply (by affecting hydropower systems) and impacts on human health.[7]

Social and health costs include the negative effect on the health of people directly exposed to this phenomenon (excessive heat waves), high food costs, stress caused by failed harvests, water scarcity, etc. Drought can also lead to increased air pollution due to increased dust concentrations and wildfires.[8] Prolonged droughts have caused mass migrations and humanitarian crisis.[9][10]

Examples for regions with increased drought risks are the Amazon basin, Australia, the Sahel region and India. For example, in 2005, parts of the Amazon basin experienced the worst drought in 100 years.[11][12] Australia could experience more severe droughts and they could become more frequent in the future, a government-commissioned report said on July 6, 2008.[13] The long Australian Millennial drought broke in 2010. The 2020–2022 Horn of Africa drought has surpassed the horrific drought in 2010–2011 in both duration and severity.[14][15] More than 150 districts in India are drought vulnerable, mostly concentrated in the state of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and its adjoining Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh, northern Karnataka and adjoining Maharashtra of the country.[16]

Throughout history, humans have usually viewed droughts as disasters due to the impact on food availability and the rest of society. People have viewed drought as a natural disaster or as something influenced by human activity, or as a result of supernatural forces.

Definition

 
Fields outside Benambra, Australia suffering from drought in 2006.

The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report defines a drought simply as "drier than normal conditions".[1]: 1157  This means that a drought is "a moisture deficit relative to the average water availability at a given location and season".[1]: 1157 

According to National Integrated Drought Information System, a multi-agency partnership, drought is generally defined as "a deficiency of precipitation over an extended period of time (usually a season or more), resulting in a water shortage". The National Weather Service office of the NOAA defines drought as "a deficiency of moisture that results in adverse impacts on people, animals, or vegetation over a sizeable area".[17]

Drought is a complex phenomenon − relating to the absence of water − which is difficult to monitor and define.[18] By the early 1980s, over 150 definitions of "drought" had already been published.[19] The range of definitions reflects differences in regions, needs, and disciplinary approaches.

Categories

There are three major categories of drought based on where in the water cycle the moisture deficit occurs: meteorological drought, hydrological drought, and agricultural or ecological drought.[1]: 1157  A meteorological drought occurs due to lack of precipitation. A hydrological drought is related to low runoff, streamflow, and reservoir and groundwater storage.[20] An agricultural or ecological drought is causing plant stress from a combination of evaporation and low soil moisture.[1]: 1157  Some organizations add another category: socioeconomic drought occurs when the demand for an economic good exceeds supply as a result of a weather-related shortfall in water supply.[18][19] The socioeconomic drought is a similar concept to water scarcity.

The different categories of droughts have different causes but similar effects:

  1. Meteorological drought occurs when there is a prolonged time with less than average precipitation.[21] Meteorological drought usually precedes the other kinds of drought.[22] As a drought persists, the conditions surrounding it gradually worsen and its impact on the local population gradually increases.
  2. Hydrological drought happens when water reserves available in sources such as aquifers, lakes and reservoirs fall below average or a locally significant threshold. Hydrological drought tends to present more slowly because it involves stored water that is used but not replenished. Due to the close interaction with water use, this type of drought is can be heavily influenced by water management. Both positive and negative human influences have been discovered and strategic water management strategies seem key to mitigate drought impact.[23][24] Like agricultural droughts, hydrological droughts can be triggered by more than just a loss of rainfall. For instance, around 2007 Kazakhstan was awarded a large amount of money by the World Bank to restore water that had been diverted to other nations from the Aral Sea under Soviet rule.[25] Similar circumstances also place their largest lake, Balkhash, at risk of completely drying out.[26]
  3. Agricultural or ecological droughts affect crop production or ecosystems in general. This condition can also arise independently from any change in precipitation levels when either increased irrigation or soil conditions and erosion triggered by poorly planned agricultural endeavors cause a shortfall in water available to the crops.

Indices and monitoring

 
Percent of U.S. experiencing drought intensity of at least level D2 (severe drought), during the weeks of 2000 to 2024.

Several indices have been defined to quantify and monitor drought at different spatial and temporal scales. A key property of drought indices is their spatial comparability, and they must be statistically robust.[27] Drought indices include:[27]

  • Palmer drought index (sometimes called the Palmer drought severity index (PDSI)): a regional drought index commonly used for monitoring drought events and studying areal extent and severity of drought episodes.[28] The index uses precipitation and temperature data to study moisture supply and demand using a simple water balance model.[28][29][30]
  • Keetch-Byram Drought Index: an index that is calculated based on rainfall, air temperature, and other meteorological factors.[31]
  • Standardized precipitation index (SPI): It is computed based on precipitation, which makes it a simple and easy-to-apply indicator for monitoring and prediction of droughts in different parts of the world. The World Meteorological Organization recommends this index for identifying and monitoring meteorological droughts in different climates and time periods.[27]
  • Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI): a multiscalar drought index based on climatic data. The SPEI accounts also for the role of the increased atmospheric evaporative demand on drought severity.[27] Evaporative demand is particularly dominant during periods of precipitation deficit. The SPEI calculation requires long-term and high-quality precipitation and atmospheric evaporative demand datasets. These can be obtained from ground stations or gridded data based on reanalysis as well as satellite and multi-source datasets.[27]
  • Indices related to vegetation: root-zone soil moisture, vegetation condition index (VDI) and vegetation health index (VHI). The VCI and VHI are computed based on vegetation indices such as the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and temperature datasets.[27]
  • Deciles index
  • Standardized runoff index

High-resolution drought information helps to better assess the spatial and temporal changes and variability in drought duration, severity, and magnitude at a much finer scale. This supports the development of site-specific adaptation measures.[27]

The application of multiple indices using different datasets helps to better manage and monitor droughts than using a single dataset, This is particularly the case in regions of the world where not enough data is available such as Africa and South America. Using a single dataset can be limiting, as it may not capture the full spectrum of drought characteristics and impacts.[27]

Careful monitoring of moisture levels can also help predict increased risk for wildfires.

Causes

 
Contraction and desiccation cracks in the dry earth of the Sonoran Desert, northwestern Mexico

General precipitation deficiency

See also: Precipitation

Mechanisms of producing precipitation include convective, stratiform,[32] and orographic rainfall.[33] Convective processes involve strong vertical motions that can cause the overturning of the atmosphere in that location within an hour and cause heavy precipitation,[34] while stratiform processes involve weaker upward motions and less intense precipitation over a longer duration.[35]

Precipitation can be divided into three categories, based on whether it falls as liquid water, liquid water that freezes on contact with the surface, or ice.

Droughts occur mainly in areas where normal levels of rainfall are, in themselves, low. If these factors do not support precipitation volumes sufficiently to reach the surface over a sufficient time, the result is a drought. Drought can be triggered by a high level of reflected sunlight and above average prevalence of high pressure systems, winds carrying continental, rather than oceanic air masses, and ridges of high pressure areas aloft can prevent or restrict the developing of thunderstorm activity or rainfall over one certain region. Once a region is within drought, feedback mechanisms such as local arid air,[36] hot conditions which can promote warm core ridging,[37] and minimal evapotranspiration can worsen drought conditions.

Dry season

See also: Dry season

Within the tropics, distinct, wet and dry seasons emerge due to the movement of the Intertropical Convergence Zone or Monsoon trough.[38] The dry season greatly increases drought occurrence,[39] and is characterized by its low humidity, with watering holes and rivers drying up. Because of the lack of these watering holes, many grazing animals are forced to migrate due to the lack of water in search of more fertile lands. Examples of such animals are zebras, elephants, and wildebeest. Because of the lack of water in the plants, bushfires are common.[40] Since water vapor becomes more energetic with increasing temperature, more water vapor is required to increase relative humidity values to 100% at higher temperatures (or to get the temperature to fall to the dew point).[41] Periods of warmth quicken the pace of fruit and vegetable production,[42] increase evaporation and transpiration from plants,[43] and worsen drought conditions.[44]

El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

Further information: El Niño–Southern Oscillation

The El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon can sometimes play a significant role in drought. ENSO comprises two patterns of temperature anomalies in the central Pacific Ocean, known as La Niña and El Niño. La Niña events are generally associated with drier and hotter conditions and further exacerbation of drought in California and the Southwestern United States, and to some extent the U.S. Southeast. Meteorological scientists have observed that La Niñas have become more frequent over time.[45]

Conversely, during El Niño events, drier and hotter weather occurs in parts of the Amazon River Basin, Colombia, and Central America. Winters during the El Niño are warmer and drier than average conditions in the Northwest, northern Midwest, and northern Mideast United States, so those regions experience reduced snowfalls. Conditions are also drier than normal from December to February in south-central Africa, mainly in Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and Botswana. Direct effects of El Niño resulting in drier conditions occur in parts of Southeast Asia and Northern Australia, increasing bush fires, worsening haze, and decreasing air quality dramatically. Drier-than-normal conditions are also in general observed in Queensland, inland Victoria, inland New South Wales, and eastern Tasmania from June to August. As warm water spreads from the west Pacific and the Indian Ocean to the east Pacific, it causes extensive drought in the western Pacific. Singapore experienced the driest February in 2014 since records began in 1869, with only 6.3 mm of rain falling in the month and temperatures hitting as high as 35 °C on 26 February. The years 1968 and 2005 had the next driest Februaries, when 8.4 mm of rain fell.[46]

Climate change

See also: Effects of climate change on the water cycle and Effects of climate change on agriculture
 
There will likely be multiplicative increases in the frequency of extreme weather events compared to the pre-industrial era for heat waves, droughts and heavy precipitation events, for various climate change scenarios.[47]

Globally, the occurrence of droughts has increased as a result of the increase in temperature and atmospheric evaporative demand. In addition, increased climate variability has increased the frequency and severity of drought events. Moreover, the occurrence and impact of droughts are aggravated by anthropogenic activities such as land use change and water management and demand.[27]

The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report also pointed out that "Warming over land drives an increase in atmospheric evaporative demand and in the severity of drought events"[48]: 1057  and "Increased atmospheric evaporative demand increases plant water stress, leading to agricultural and ecological drought".[49]: 578 

There is a rise of compound warm-season droughts in Europe that are concurrent with an increase in potential evapotranspiration.[50]

This section is an excerpt from Effects of climate change § Droughts.[edit]
 
A dry lakebed in California. In 2022, the state was experiencing its most serious drought in 1,200 years, worsened by climate change.[51]
Climate change affects many factors associated with droughts. These include how much rain falls and how fast the rain evaporates again. Warming over land increases the severity and frequency of droughts around much of the world.[52][53]: 1057  In some tropical and subtropical regions of the world, there will probably be less rain due to global warming. This will make them more prone to drought. Droughts are set to worsen in many regions of the world. These include Central America, the Amazon and south-western South America. They also include West and Southern Africa. The Mediterranean and south-western Australia are also some of these regions.[53]: 1157 

Higher temperatures increase evaporation. This dries the soil and increases plant stress. Agriculture suffers as a result. This means even regions where overall rainfall is expected to remain relatively stable will experience these impacts.[53]: 1157  These regions include central and northern Europe. Without climate change mitigation, around one third of land areas are likely to experience moderate or more severe drought by 2100.[53]: 1157  Due to global warming droughts are more frequent and intense than in the past.[54]

Several impacts make their impacts worse. These are increased water demand, population growth and urban expansion in many areas.[55] Land restoration can help reduce the impact of droughts. One example of this is agroforestry.[56]

Erosion and human activities

See also: Aeolian processes

Human activity can directly trigger exacerbating factors such as over-farming, excessive irrigation,[57] deforestation, and erosion adversely impact the ability of the land to capture and hold water.[58] In arid climates, the main source of erosion is wind.[59] Erosion can be the result of material movement by the wind. The wind can cause small particles to be lifted and therefore moved to another region (deflation). Suspended particles within the wind may impact on solid objects causing erosion by abrasion (ecological succession). Wind erosion generally occurs in areas with little or no vegetation, often in areas where there is insufficient rainfall to support vegetation.[60]

Impacts

 
Global drought total economic loss risk
 
Pair of dead oryx in Namibia during the 2018–19 Southern Africa drought.
 
After years of drought and dust storms the town of Farina in South Australia was abandoned.

Drought is one of the most complex and major natural hazards, and it has devastating impacts on the environment, economy, water resources, agriculture, and society worldwide.[27]

One can divide the impacts of droughts and water shortages into three groups: environmental, economic and social (including health).

Environmental and economic impacts

 
Western red cedar dying from drought, USA, 2018

Environmental effects of droughts include: lower surface and subterranean water-levels, lower flow-levels (with a decrease below the minimum leading to direct danger for amphibian life), increased pollution of surface water, the drying out of wetlands, more and larger wildfires, higher deflation intensity, loss of biodiversity, worse health of trees and the appearance of pests and dendroid diseases.[61][6] Drought-induced mortality of trees lacks in most climate models in their representation of forests as land carbon sink.[62]

Economic losses as a result of droughts include lower agricultural, forests, game and fishing output, higher food-production costs, lower energy-production levels in hydro plants, losses caused by depleted water tourism and transport revenue, problems with water supply for the energy sector and for technological processes in metallurgy, mining, the chemical, paper, wood, foodstuff industries etc., disruption of water supplies for municipal economies.

Further examples of common environmental and economic consequences of drought include:

Agricultural impacts

Further information: Effects of climate change on agriculture
 
Impacts of climate change on soil moisture at 2 °C of global warming. A reduction of one standard deviation means that average soil moisture will approximate the ninth driest year between 1850 and 1900.

Droughts can cause land degradation and loss of soil moisture, resulting in the destruction of cropland productivity.[70] This can result in diminished crop growth or yield productions and carrying capacity for livestock. Drought in combination with high levels of grazing pressure can function as the tipping point for an ecosystem, causing woody encroachment.[71]

Water stress affects plant development and quality in a variety of ways: firstly drought can cause poor germination and impaired seedling development.[72] At the same time plant growth relies on cellular division, cell enlargement, and differentiation. Drought stress impairs mitosis and cell elongation via loss of turgor pressure which results in poor growth.[73] Development of leaves is also dependent upon turgor pressure, concentration of nutrients, and carbon assimilates[clarification needed] all of which are reduced by drought conditions, thus drought stress lead to a decrease in leaf size and number.[73] Plant height, biomass, leaf size and stem girth has been shown to decrease in maize under water limiting conditions.[73] Crop yield is also negatively effected by drought stress, the reduction in crop yield results from a decrease in photosynthetic rate, changes in leaf development, and altered allocation of resources all due to drought stress.[73] Crop plants exposed to drought stress suffer from reductions in leaf water potential and transpiration rate. Water-use efficiency increases in crops such as wheat while decreasing in others, such as potatoes.[74][75][73]

Plants need water for the uptake of nutrients from the soil, and for the transport of nutrients throughout the plant: drought conditions limit these functions leading to stunted growth. Drought stress also causes a decrease in photosynthetic activity in plants due to the reduction of photosynthetic tissues, stomatal closure, and reduced performance of photosynthetic machinery. This reduction in photosynthetic activity contributes to the reduction in plant growth and yields.[73] Another factor influencing reduced plant growth and yields include the allocation of resources; following drought stress plants will allocate more resources to roots to aid in water uptake increasing root growth and reducing the growth of other plant parts while decreasing yields.[73]

Social and health impacts

The most negative impacts of drought for humans include crop failure, food crisis, famine, malnutrition, and poverty, which lead to loss of life and mass migration of people.[27]

There are negative effects on the health of people who are directly exposed to this phenomenon (excessive heat waves). Droughts can also cause limitations of water supplies, increased water pollution levels, high food-costs, stress caused by failed harvests, water scarcity, etc. Reduced water quality can occur because lower water-flows reduce dilution of pollutants and increase contamination of remaining water sources.[76][77]

This explains why droughts and water scarcity operate as a factor which increases the gap between developed and developing countries.[78]

Effects vary according to vulnerability. For example, subsistence farmers are more likely to migrate during drought because they do not have alternative food-sources. Areas with populations that depend on water sources as a major food-source are more vulnerable to famine.

 
People displaced by a drought in Somalia arriving at a camp in Dolo Ado, Ethiopia, 2011

Further examples of social and health consequences include:

Loss of fertile soils

See also: Aeolian processes

Wind erosion is much more severe in arid areas and during times of drought. For example, in the Great Plains, it is estimated that soil loss due to wind erosion can be as much as 6100 times greater in drought years than in wet years.[81]

Loess is a homogeneous, typically nonstratified, porous, friable, slightly coherent, often calcareous, fine-grained, silty, pale yellow or buff, windblown (Aeolian) sediment.[82] It generally occurs as a widespread blanket deposit that covers areas of hundreds of square kilometers and tens of meters thick. Loess often stands in either steep or vertical faces.[83] Loess tends to develop into highly rich soils. Under appropriate climatic conditions, areas with loess are among the most agriculturally productive in the world.[84] Loess deposits are geologically unstable by nature, and will erode very readily. Therefore, windbreaks (such as big trees and bushes) are often planted by farmers to reduce the wind erosion of loess.[59]

Regions particularly affected

Main article: List of droughts

Amazon basin

See also: Amazon Rainforest § Impact of early 21st century Amazon droughts

In 2005, parts of the Amazon basin experienced the worst drought in 100 years.[11][12] A 2006 article reported results showing that the forest in its present form could survive only three years of drought.[85][86] Scientists at the Brazilian National Institute of Amazonian Research argue in the article that this drought response, coupled with the effects of deforestation on regional climate, are pushing the rainforest towards a "tipping point" where it would irreversibly start to die. It concludes that the rainforest is on the brink of being turned into savanna or desert, with catastrophic consequences for the world's climate. According to the WWF, the combination of climate change and deforestation increases the drying effect of dead trees that fuels forest fires.[87]

Australia

Further information: Drought in Australia

The 1997–2009 Millennium Drought in Australia led to a water supply crisis across much of the country. As a result, many desalination plants were built for the first time (see list).

By far the largest part of Australia is desert or semi-arid lands commonly known as the outback. A 2005 study by Australian and American researchers investigated the desertification of the interior, and suggested that one explanation was related to human settlers who arrived about 50,000 years ago. Regular burning by these settlers could have prevented monsoons from reaching interior Australia.[88] In June 2008 it became known that an expert panel had warned of long term, maybe irreversible, severe ecological damage for the whole Murray-Darling basin if it did not receive sufficient water by October 2008.[89] Australia could experience more severe droughts and they could become more frequent in the future, a government-commissioned report said on July 6, 2008.[13] Australian environmentalist Tim Flannery, predicted that unless it made drastic changes, Perth in Western Australia could become the world's first ghost metropolis, an abandoned city with no more water to sustain its population.[90] The long Australian Millennial drought broke in 2010.

East Africa

East Africa, including for example Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda, has a diverse climate, ranging from hot, dry regions to cooler, wetter highland regions. The region has considerable variability in seasonal rainfall and a very complex topography. In the northern parts of the region within the Nile basin (Ethiopia, Sudan), the rainfall is characterized by an unimodal cycle with a wet season from July to September. The rest of the region has a bimodal annual cycle, featuring long rains from March to May and the short rains from October to December. The frequent occurrence of hydrological extremes, like droughts and floods, harms the already vulnerable population suffering from severe poverty and economic turmoil.[91] Droughts prompted food shortages for example in 1984–85, 2006 and 2011.

The Eastern African region experiences the impacts of climate change in different forms. For instance, below-average rainfall occurred for six consecutive rainy seasons in the Horn of Africa during the period 2020–2023 leading to the third longest and most widespread drought on record with dire implications for food security (see Horn of Africa drought (2020–present)). Conversely, other parts experienced extreme floods, e.g., the 2020 East Africa floods in Ethiopia, Rwanda, Kenya, Burundi, and Uganda, and the 2022 floods in South Sudan.[91][14][15]

A key feature in the region is the heterogeneous distribution of hydrologic extremes in space and time. For instance, El Niño can cause droughts in one part of the region and floods in the other. This is also a common situation within a country, e.g., in Ethiopia. The recent years with consecutive droughts followed by floods are a testament to the need to better forecast these kinds of events and their impacts.[91]

Himalayan river basins

 
Drought-affected area in Karnataka, India in 2012.

Approximately 2.4 billion people live in the drainage basin of the Himalayan rivers.[92] India, China, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Myanmar could experience floods followed by droughts in coming decades. More than 150 districts in India are drought vulnerable, mostly concentrated in the state of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and its adjoining Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh, northern Karnataka and adjoining Maharashtra of the country.[16] Drought in India affecting the Ganges is of particular concern, as it provides drinking water and agricultural irrigation for more than 500 million people.[93][94][95]

North America

The west coast of North America, which gets much of its water from glaciers in mountain ranges such as the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada, also would be affected.[96][97]

By country or region

Droughts in particular countries:

See also:

Protection, mitigation and relief

See also: Water scarcity, Water supply, and Water security
 
Water distribution on Marshall Islands during El Niño.

Agriculturally, people can effectively mitigate much of the impact of drought through irrigation and crop rotation. Failure to develop adequate drought mitigation strategies carries a grave human cost in the modern era, exacerbated by ever-increasing population densities.

Strategies for drought protection or mitigation include:

  • Dams – many dams and their associated reservoirs supply additional water in times of drought.[98]
  • Cloud seeding – a form of intentional weather modification to induce rainfall.[99] This remains a hotly debated topic, as the United States National Research Council released a report in 2004 stating that to date, there is still no convincing scientific proof of the efficacy of intentional weather modification.[100]
  • Land use – Carefully planned crop rotation can help to minimize erosion and allow farmers to plant less water-dependent crops in drier years.
  • Transvasement – Building canals or redirecting rivers as massive attempts at irrigation in drought-prone areas.

When water is scarce due to droughts, there are a range of options for people to access other sources of water, such as wastewater reuse, rainwater harvesting and stormwater recovery, or seawater desalination.

History

See also: List of droughts
 
A South Dakota farm during the Dust Bowl, 1936

Throughout history, humans have usually viewed droughts as disasters due to the impact on food availability and the rest of society. Drought is among the earliest documented climatic events, present in the Epic of Gilgamesh and tied to the Biblical story of Joseph's arrival in and the later Exodus from ancient Egypt.[101] Hunter-gatherer migrations in 9,500 BC Chile have been linked to the phenomenon,[102] as has the exodus of early humans out of Africa and into the rest of the world around 135,000 years ago.[103]

Droughts can be scientifically explained in terms of physical mechanisms, which underlie natural disasters and are influenced by human impact on the environment.[104] Beliefs about drought are further shaped by cultural factors including local knowledge, perceptions, values, beliefs and religion. In some places and times, droughts have been interpreted as the work of supernatural forces.[105] Globally, people in many societies have been more likely to explain natural events like drought, famine and disease in terms of the supernatural than they are to explain social phenomena like war, murder, and theft.[106][107]

Historically, rituals have been used in an attempt to prevent or avert drought. Rainmaking rituals have ranged from dances to scapegoating to human sacrifices. Many ancient practices are now a matter of folklore while others may still be practiced.[108]

In areas where people have limited understanding of the scientific basis of drought, beliefs about drought continue to reflect indigenous beliefs in the power of spirits and Christian philosophies that see drought as a divine punishment. Such beliefs can influence people's thinking and affect their resilience and ability to adapt to stress and respond to crises.[105] In the case of Creationism, curricula sometimes give religious explanations of natural phenomena rather than scientific ones. Teaching explicitly denies evolution, that human agency is affecting climate, and that climate change is occurring.[109]

Some historical droughts include:

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d e Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D.  Jiang, A.  Khan, W.  Pokam Mba, D.  Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O.  Zolina, 2021: Water Cycle Changes Archived 2022-09-29 at the Wayback Machine. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I  to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010.
  2. ^ Living With Drought Archived 2007-02-18 at the Wayback Machine
  3. ^ Australian Drought and Climate Change Archived 2018-07-26 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved June 7th 2007.
  4. ^ a b Brando, Paulo M.; Paolucci, Lucas; Ummenhofer, Caroline C.; Ordway, Elsa M.; Hartmann, Henrik; Cattau, Megan E.; Rattis, Ludmila; Medjibe, Vincent; Coe, Michael T.; Balch, Jennifer (30 May 2019). "Droughts, Wildfires, and Forest Carbon Cycling: A Pantropical Synthesis". Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences. 47 (1): 555–581. Bibcode:2019AREPS..47..555B. doi:10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010235. ISSN 0084-6597.
  5. ^ Merzdorf, Jessica (July 9, 2019). "A Drier Future Sets the Stage for More Wildfires". Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet. NASA.
  6. ^ a b Hartmann, Henrik; Bastos, Ana; Das, Adrian J.; Esquivel-Muelbert, Adriane; Hammond, William M.; Martínez-Vilalta, Jordi; McDowell, Nate G.; Powers, Jennifer S.; Pugh, Thomas A.M.; Ruthrof, Katinka X.; Allen, Craig D. (20 May 2022). "Climate Change Risks to Global Forest Health: Emergence of Unexpected Events of Elevated Tree Mortality Worldwide". Annual Review of Plant Biology. 73 (1): 673–702. Bibcode:2022ARPB...73..673H. doi:10.1146/annurev-arplant-102820-012804. ISSN 1543-5008. PMID 35231182.
  7. ^ Fleming-Muñoz, David A.; Whitten, Stuart; Bonnett, Graham D. (28 June 2023). "The economics of drought: A review of impacts and costs". Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics. 67 (4): 501–523. doi:10.1111/1467-8489.12527. ISSN 1364-985X.
  8. ^ Stanke, Carla; Kerac, Marko; Prudhomme, Christel; Medlock, Jolyon; Murray, Virginia (2013-06-05). "Health Effects of Drought: a Systematic Review of the Evidence". PLOS Currents. 5: ecurrents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004. doi:10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004 (inactive 1 November 2024). ISSN 2157-3999. PMC 3682759. PMID 23787891.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
  9. ^ Stanke, C; Kerac, M; Prudhomme, C; Medlock, J; Murray, V (5 June 2013). "Health effects of drought: a systematic review of the evidence". PLOS Currents. 5. doi:10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004 (inactive 1 November 2024). PMC 3682759. PMID 23787891.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
  10. ^ Bellizzi, Saverio; Lane, Chris; Elhakim, Mohamed; Nabeth, Pierre (12 November 2020). "Health consequences of drought in the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region: hotspot areas and needed actions". Environmental Health. 19 (1): 114. Bibcode:2020EnvHe..19..114B. doi:10.1186/s12940-020-00665-z. ISSN 1476-069X. PMC 7659048. PMID 33183302.
  11. ^ a b "Amazon Drought Worst in 100 Years". ens-newswire.com. Archived from the original on 2019-11-15. Retrieved 5 November 2017.
  12. ^ a b Drought Threatens Amazon Basin – Extreme conditions felt for second year running Archived May 27, 2013, at the Wayback Machine
  13. ^ a b Australia faces worse, more frequent droughts: study Archived 2021-02-03 at the Wayback Machine, Reuters
  14. ^ a b Dunne, Daisy (2022-10-26). "Analysis: Africa's unreported extreme weather in 2022 and climate change". Carbon Brief. Retrieved 2022-10-29.
  15. ^ a b "Horn of Africa Drought: Regional Humanitarian Overview & Call to Action". ReliefWeb. 2022-09-21. Retrieved 2022-10-29.
  16. ^ a b Nandy, S.N. (2021) Analysis of drought vulnerability indices of Indian districts using Fuzzy logic approach. International Water Resources Association Journal (IWRA – India), 10(2): 11-17. https://www.indianjournals.com/ijor.aspx?target=ijor:iwra&volume=10&issue=2&article=002
  17. ^ "Drought Basics". Drought.gov. NOAA National Integrated Drought Information System. Retrieved 2022-09-16.
  18. ^ a b "Definition of Drought". National Centers for Environmental Information. Retrieved 2022-09-16.
  19. ^ a b "Types of Drought". drought.unl.edu. National Drought Mitigation Center. Retrieved 2022-09-16.
  20. ^ Van Loon, Anne F. (14 April 2015). "Hydrological drought explained". WIREs Water. 2 (4): 359–392. Bibcode:2015WIRWa...2..359V. doi:10.1002/wat2.1085. ISSN 2049-1948.
  21. ^ Swain, S; et al. (2017). "Application of SPI, EDI and PNPI using MSWEP precipitation data over Marathwada, India". 2017 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS). Vol. 2017. pp. 5505–5507. doi:10.1109/IGARSS.2017.8128250. ISBN 978-1-5090-4951-6. S2CID 26920225.
  22. ^ "What is a Drought?" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. August 2006. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 2007-04-10.
  23. ^ Van Loon, Anne F.; Stahl, Kerstin; Di Baldassarre, Giuliano; Clark, Julian; Rangecroft, Sally; Wanders, Niko; Gleeson, Tom; Van Dijk, Albert I. J. M.; Tallaksen, Lena M.; Hannaford, Jamie; Uijlenhoet, Remko; Teuling, Adriaan J.; Hannah, David M.; Sheffield, Justin; Svoboda, Mark (2016-09-08). "Drought in a human-modified world: reframing drought definitions, understanding, and analysis approaches". Hydrology and Earth System Sciences. 20 (9): 3631–3650. Bibcode:2016HESS...20.3631V. doi:10.5194/hess-20-3631-2016. hdl:1885/152821. ISSN 1027-5606.
  24. ^ Wendt, Doris E.; Van Loon, Anne F.; Bloomfield, John P.; Hannah, David M. (2020-10-13). "Asymmetric impact of groundwater use on groundwater droughts". Hydrology and Earth System Sciences. 24 (10): 4853–4868. Bibcode:2020HESS...24.4853W. doi:10.5194/hess-24-4853-2020. ISSN 1027-5606.
  25. ^ "Asia-Pacific – Dam project aims to save Aral Sea". BBC News. 2007-04-09.
  26. ^ "Asia-Pacific – Kazakh lake 'could dry up'". BBC News. 2004-01-15.
  27. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Gebrechorkos, Solomon H.; Peng, Jian; Dyer, Ellen; Miralles, Diego G.; Vicente-Serrano, Sergio M.; Funk, Chris; Beck, Hylke E.; Asfaw, Dagmawi T.; Singer, Michael B.; Dadson, Simon J. (2023). "Global high-resolution drought indices for 1981–2022". Earth System Science Data. 15 (12): 5449–5466. Bibcode:2023ESSD...15.5449G. doi:10.5194/essd-15-5449-2023. hdl:10754/693396. ISSN 1866-3516.   Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
  28. ^ a b Mishra, Ashok K.; Singh, Vijay P. (September 2010). "A review of drought concepts". Journal of Hydrology. 391 (1–2): 202–216. Bibcode:2010JHyd..391..202M. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2010.07.012.
  29. ^ Van Loon, Anne F. (July 2015). "Hydrological drought explained: Hydrological drought explained". Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water. 2 (4): 359–392. Bibcode:2015WIRWa...2..359V. doi:10.1002/wat2.1085.
  30. ^ Liu, Yi; Ren, Liliang; Ma, Mingwei; Yang, Xiaoli; Yuan, Fei; Jiang, Shanhu (January 2016). "An insight into the Palmer drought mechanism based indices: comprehensive comparison of their strengths and limitations". Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment. 30 (1): 119–136. Bibcode:2016SERRA..30..119L. doi:10.1007/s00477-015-1042-4. ISSN 1436-3240.
  31. ^ Keetch, John J.; Byram, George M. (1968). "A Drought Index for Forest Fire Control". Res. Pap. Se-38. Asheville, Nc: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 35 P. 038. USDA Forest Service Southern Research Station. Retrieved August 11, 2016. (Date: 1968) Res. Paper SE-38. 32 pp. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service
  32. ^ Emmanouil N. Anagnostou (2004). "A convective/stratiform precipitation classification algorithm for volume scanning weather radar observations". Meteorological Applications. 11 (4): 291–300. Bibcode:2004MeApp..11..291A. doi:10.1017/S1350482704001409.
  33. ^ A.J. Dore; M. Mousavi-Baygi; R.I. Smith; J. Hall; D. Fowler; T.W. Choularton (June 2006). "A model of annual orographic precipitation and acid deposition and its application to Snowdonia". Atmospheric Environment. 40 (18): 3316–3326. Bibcode:2006AtmEn..40.3316D. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2006.01.043.
  34. ^ Robert Penrose Pearce (2002). Meteorology at the Millennium. Academic Press. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-12-548035-2. Retrieved 2009-01-02.
  35. ^ Houze, Robert A. Jr. (1993). Cloud dynamics. San Diego: Academic Press. ISBN 9780080502106. OCLC 427392836.
  36. ^ Roland Paepe; Rhodes Whitmore Fairbridge; Saskia Jelgersma (1990). Greenhouse Effect, Sea Level and Drought. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 22. ISBN 978-0792310174.
  37. ^ Joseph S. D'Aleo; Pamela G. Grube (2002). The Oryx Resource Guide to El Niño and La Niña. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 48–49. ISBN 978-1573563789.
  38. ^ Bin Wang (2006-01-13). The Asian Monsoon. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 206. ISBN 978-3540406105.
  39. ^ Vijendra K. Boken; Arthur P. Cracknell; Ronald L. Heathcote (2005-03-24). Monitoring and Predicting Agricultural Drought : A Global Study: A Global Study. Oxford University Press. p. 349. ISBN 978-0198036784.
  40. ^ "Wet & Dry Seasons". Archived from the original on 2012-03-20. Retrieved 2018-12-23.
  41. ^ Alistair B. Fraser (1994-11-27). "Bad Meteorology: The reason clouds form when air cools is because cold air cannot hold as much water vapor as warm air". Archived from the original on 2015-03-16. Retrieved 2015-02-17.
  42. ^ Cooperative Extension Service (January 2014). Home Vegetable Gardening in Kentucky (PDF). University of Kentucky. p. 19. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 2015-02-18.
  43. ^ North Carolina State University (2013-08-09). "Evapotranspiration". Archived from the original on 2015-02-19. Retrieved 2015-02-18.
  44. ^ National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (2002-05-16). "Warm Temperatures and Severe Drought Continued in April Throughout Parts of the United States; Global Temperature For April Second Warmest on Record". Archived from the original on Feb 19, 2015. Retrieved 2015-02-18.
  45. ^ Seth Borenstein (May 28, 2022). "Weather's unwanted guest: Nasty La Niña keeps popping up". 9news.com.au.com. Archived from the original on 6 December 2023. Retrieved June 4, 2022. Scientists are noticing that in the past 25 years the world seems to be getting more La Niñas than it used to...
  46. ^ Chan, Joanne (3 March 2010). "February 2010 is driest month for S'pore since records began in 1869". Channel NewsAsia. Archived from the original on 3 March 2010. Retrieved 5 November 2017.
  47. ^ "Climate Change 2021 / The Physical Science Basis / Working Group I contribution to the WGI Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change / Summary for Policymakers" (PDF). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 9 August 2021. p. SPM-23. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 November 2021. Fig. SPM.6
  48. ^ Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D.  Jiang, A.  Khan, W.  Pokam Mba, D.  Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O.  Zolina, 2021: Chapter 8: Water Cycle Changes. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I  to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010.
  49. ^ Caretta, M.A., A. Mukherji, M. Arfanuzzaman, R.A. Betts, A. Gelfan, Y. Hirabayashi, T.K. Lissner, J. Liu, E. Lopez Gunn, R. Morgan, S. Mwanga, and S. Supratid, 2022: Chapter 4: Water. In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 551–712, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.006.
  50. ^ Markonis, Yannis; Kumar, Rohini; Hanel, Martin; Rakovec, Oldrich; Máca, Petr; AghaKouchak, Amir (2021). "The rise of compound warm-season droughts in Europe". Science Advances. 7 (6): eabb9668. Bibcode:2021SciA....7.9668M. doi:10.1126/sciadv.abb9668. ISSN 2375-2548. PMC 7857689. PMID 33536204.
  51. ^ Irina Ivanova (2 June 2022). "California is rationing water amid its worst drought in 1,200 years". CBS News. Retrieved 2 June 2022.
  52. ^ Cook, Benjamin I.; Mankin, Justin S.; Anchukaitis, Kevin J. (2018-05-12). "Climate Change and Drought: From Past to Future". Current Climate Change Reports. 4 (2): 164–179. Bibcode:2018CCCR....4..164C. doi:10.1007/s40641-018-0093-2. ISSN 2198-6061. S2CID 53624756.
  53. ^ a b c d Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021: Chapter 8: Water Cycle Changes. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, US, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010
  54. ^ "Scientists confirm global floods and droughts worsened by climate change". PBS NewsHour. 2023-03-13. Retrieved 2023-05-01.
  55. ^ Mishra, A. K.; Singh, V. P. (2011). "Drought modeling – A review". Journal of Hydrology. 403 (1–2): 157–175. Bibcode:2011JHyd..403..157M. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.049.
  56. ^ Daniel Tsegai, Miriam Medel, Patrick Augenstein, Zhuojing Huang (2022) Drought in Numbers 2022 - restoration for readiness and resilience, United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
  57. ^ "A biblical tragedy as Sea of Galilee faces drought". Belfast Telegraph.
  58. ^ "Kenya: Deforestation exacerbates droughts, floods". forests.org. Archived from the original on 2011-09-27. Retrieved 2008-05-24.
  59. ^ a b Vern Hofman; Dave Franzen (1997). "Emergency Tillage to Control Wind Erosion". North Dakota State University Extension Service. Archived from the original on 2012-04-17. Retrieved 2009-03-21.
  60. ^ United States Geological Survey (2004). "Dunes – Getting Started". Archived from the original on 2012-04-27. Retrieved 2009-03-21.
  61. ^ Zimmer, Katarina (17 August 2023). "Dead trees around the world are shocking scientists". Knowable Magazine. doi:10.1146/knowable-081723-2.
  62. ^ Greenfield, Patrick (2024-10-14). "Trees and land absorbed almost no CO2 last year. Is nature's carbon sink failing?". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2024-11-02.
  63. ^ Griffin-Nolan, Robert J.; Blumenthal, Dana M.; Collins, Scott L.; Farkas, Timothy E.; Hoffman, Ava M.; Mueller, Kevin E.; Ocheltree, Troy W.; Smith, Melinda D.; Whitney, Kenneth D.; Knapp, Alan K. (September 2019). Jones, Holly (ed.). "Shifts in plant functional composition following long-term drought in grasslands". Journal of Ecology. 107 (5): 2133–2148. Bibcode:2019JEcol.107.2133G. doi:10.1111/1365-2745.13252. ISSN 0022-0477.
  64. ^ "TFS Article". tamu.edu. Archived from the original on 11 July 2003.
  65. ^ C.Michael Hogan. 2010. Abiotic factor. Ed. Emily Monosson. Encyclopedia of Earth. National Council for Science and the Environment, Washington DC Archived June 8, 2013, at the Wayback Machine
  66. ^ "Asia-Pacific – Australians face snake invasion". BBC News. 2007-01-20.
  67. ^ Drought affecting US hydroelectric production | Daily Estimate Archived October 2, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
  68. ^ "Parched village sues to shut tap at Coke / Drought-hit Indians say plant draining groundwater". San Francisco Chronicle. 2005-03-06.
  69. ^ "Sweden closes nuclear plants over safety fears". Greenpeace International. Archived from the original on 2009-01-10. Retrieved 2016-02-06.
  70. ^ Seka, Ayalkibet Mekonnen; Zhang, Jiahua; Prodhan, Foyez Ahmed; Ayele, Gebiaw Teshome; Finsa, Mekuanenet Mulunhie; Sharma, Til Prasad Pangali; Melesse, Assefa Mekonnen (2022). "Hydrological drought impacts on water storage variations: a focus on the role of vegetation changes in the East Africa region. A systematic review". Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 29 (53): 80237–80256. Bibcode:2022ESPR...2980237S. doi:10.1007/s11356-022-23313-0. ISSN 0944-1344. PMID 36197619. S2CID 252713722.
  71. ^ Koch, Franziska; Tietjen, Britta; Tielbörger, Katja; Allhoff, Korinna T. (November 2022). "Livestock management promotes bush encroachment in savanna systems by altering plant–herbivore feedback". Oikos. 2023 (3). doi:10.1111/oik.09462. ISSN 0030-1299. S2CID 253299539.
  72. ^ Farooq M, Wahid A, Kobayashi N, Fujita D, Basra SM (March 2009). "Plant drought stress: effects, mechanisms and management". Agronomy for Sustainable Development. 29 (1): 185–212. Bibcode:2009AgSD...29..185F. doi:10.1051/agro:2008021. S2CID 12066792.
  73. ^ a b c d e f g Fahad S, Bajwa AA, Nazir U, Anjum SA, Farooq A, Zohaib A, et al. (29 June 2017). "Crop Production under Drought and Heat Stress: Plant Responses and Management Options". Frontiers in Plant Science. 8: 1147. doi:10.3389/fpls.2017.01147. PMC 5489704. PMID 28706531.
  74. ^ Kahiluoto H, Kaseva J, Balek J, Olesen JE, Ruiz-Ramos M, Gobin A, et al. (January 2019). "Decline in climate resilience of European wheat". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 116 (1): 123–128. Bibcode:2019PNAS..116..123K. doi:10.1073/pnas.1804387115. PMC 6320549. PMID 30584094.
  75. ^ Abbate PE, Dardanelli JL, Cantarero MG, Maturano M, Melchiori RJ, Suero EE (2004). "Climatic and Water Availability Effects on Water-Use Efficiency in Wheat". Crop Science. 44 (2): 474–483. doi:10.2135/cropsci2004.4740.
  76. ^ Mosley LM (2014). Drought impacts on the water quality of freshwater systems; review and integration. Earth-Science Reviewss. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2014.11.010.
  77. ^ 10. Mosley LM, Zammit B, Leyden E, Heneker TM, Hipsey MR, Skinner D, and Aldridge KT (2012). The Impact of Extreme Low Flows on the Water Quality of the Lower Murray River and Lakes (South Australia). Water Resources Management 26: 3923–3946.
  78. ^ Prokurat, Sergiusz (2015). "Drought and water shortages in Asia as a threat and economic problem" (PDF). Journal of Modern Science. 26 (3). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 4 August 2016.
  79. ^ García, R. V.; Escudero, J. C. (1981). The constant catastrophe : malnutrition, famines, and drought (1st ed.). Oxford; New York: Pergamon Press. p. 3. ISBN 9781483189666.
  80. ^ "Toxins from freshwater algae found in San Francisco Bay shellfish". Retrieved 5 November 2017.
  81. ^ Wiggs, Giles F.S. (2011). "Geomorphological hazards in drylands". In Thomas, David S.G. (ed.). Arid Zone Geomorphology: Process, Form and Change in Drylands. John Wiley & Sons. p. 588. ISBN 978-0-470-71076-0.
  82. ^ F. von Richthofen (1882). "On the mode of origin of the loess". Geological Magazine (Decade II). 9 (7): 293–305. Bibcode:1882GeoM....9..293R. doi:10.1017/S001675680017164X. S2CID 131245730.
  83. ^ K.E.K. Neuendorf; J.P. Mehl, Jr.; J.A. Jackson (2005). Glossary of Geology. Springer-Verlag, New York. p. 779. ISBN 978-3-540-27951-8.
  84. ^ Arthur Getis; Judith Getis and Jerome D. Fellmann (2000). Introduction to Geography, Seventh Edition. McGraw-Hill. p. 99. ISBN 978-0-697-38506-2.
  85. ^ Amazon rainforest 'could become a desert' Archived 2017-08-25 at the Wayback Machine, The Independent, July 23, 2006. Retrieved September 28, 2006.
  86. ^ Dying Forest: One year to save the Amazon Archived 2017-08-25 at the Wayback Machine, The Independent, July 23, 2006. Retrieved September 28, 2006.
  87. ^ Climate change a threat to Amazon rainforest, warns WWF, World Wide Fund for Nature, March 9, 2996. Retrieved September 28, 2006.
  88. ^ Sensitivity of the Australian Monsoon to insolation and vegetation: Implications for human impact on continental moisture balance Archived 2010-06-15 at the Wayback Machine, Geological Society of America
  89. ^ Australian rivers 'face disaster' Archived 2021-08-13 at the Wayback Machine, BBC News
  90. ^ Metropolis strives to meet its thirst Archived 2021-09-06 at the Wayback Machine, BBC News
  91. ^ a b c Taye, Meron Teferi; Dyer, Ellen (2024). "Hydrologic Extremes in a Changing Climate: a Review of Extremes in East Africa". Current Climate Change Reports. 10 (1): 1–11. doi:10.1007/s40641-024-00193-9. ISSN 2198-6061.   Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
  92. ^ "People & the Planet > climate change > newsfile > big melt threatens millions, says un". peopleandplanet.net. Archived from the original on 19 August 2007.
  93. ^ "Ganges, Indus may not survive: climatologists". Rediff.com.
  94. ^ "People's Daily Online – Glaciers melting at alarming speed". People's Daily.
  95. ^ "Science/Nature – Himalaya glaciers melt unnoticed". BBC News. 2004-11-10.
  96. ^ "Glaciers Are Melting Faster Than Expected, UN Reports". ScienceDaily.
  97. ^ Water shortage worst in decades, official says, Los Angeles Times
  98. ^ Matt Weiser; Jeremy B. White (2014-06-01). "Should California build dams, reservoirs to help with future droughts?". Fresno Bee. Archived from the original on 2015-03-20. Retrieved 2015-02-18.
  99. ^ "Cloud seeding helps alleviate drought". China Daily.
  100. ^ NRC (2003). Critical Issues in Weather Modification Research. doi:10.17226/10829. ISBN 978-0-309-09053-7.
  101. ^ "Weather Centre – Features – History and Religion – Weather in the Bible – Drought and Famine". Archived from the original on 10 January 2004. Retrieved 5 November 2017.
  102. ^ "Ancient Chile Migration Mystery Tied to Drought". National Geographic. Archived from the original on October 28, 2002.
  103. ^ Drought pushed ancient African immigration [permanent dead link‍]
  104. ^ Savelli, Elisa; Rusca, Maria; Cloke, Hannah; Di Baldassarre, Giuliano (May 2022). "Drought and society: Scientific progress, blind spots, and future prospects". WIREs Climate Change. 13 (3): e761. Bibcode:2022WIRCC..13E.761S. doi:10.1002/wcc.761. ISSN 1757-7780. PMC 9286479. PMID 35864922.
  105. ^ a b Salite, Daniela (1 September 2019). "Explaining the uncertainty: understanding small-scale farmers' cultural beliefs and reasoning of drought causes in Gaza Province, Southern Mozambique". Agriculture and Human Values. 36 (3): 427–441. doi:10.1007/s10460-019-09928-z. ISSN 1572-8366.
  106. ^ Wrethman, Emily (4 April 2023). "How societies use supernatural forces to explain earthly events". Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences.
  107. ^ Jackson, Joshua Conrad; Dillion, Danica; Bastian, Brock; Watts, Joseph; Buckner, William; DiMaggio, Nicholas; Gray, Kurt (May 2023). "Supernatural explanations across 114 societies are more common for natural than social phenomena". Nature Human Behaviour. 7 (5): 707–717. doi:10.1038/s41562-023-01558-0. ISSN 2397-3374. PMID 37012368.
  108. ^ Spring, Úrsula Oswald; Brauch, Hans Günter (25 January 2021). Decolonising Conflicts, Security, Peace, Gender, Environment and Development in the Anthropocene. Springer Nature. pp. 385–410. ISBN 978-3-030-62316-6.
  109. ^ Scaramanga, Jenna; Reiss, Michael J. (1 September 2023). "Evolutionary stasis: creationism, evolution and climate change in the Accelerated Christian Education curriculum". Cultural Studies of Science Education. 18 (3): 809–827. Bibcode:2023CSSE...18..809S. doi:10.1007/s11422-023-10187-y. ISSN 1871-1510. PMC 10191816. PMID 37360053.
  110. ^ "Did a mega drought topple empires 4,200 years ago?". Nature. 26 January 2022.
  111. ^ "Driest Place: Atacama Desert, Chile". Extreme Science. Retrieved September 25, 2016..
  112. ^ "What really caused the collapse of the Maya civilization?". National Geographic.
  113. ^ Oliver Wetter et al: The year-long unprecedented European heat and drought of 1540 – a worst case. In: Climatic Change, June 2014, doi:10.1007/s10584-014-1184-2
  114. ^ Andreas Frey (2018-08-04). "Elf Monate ohne Regen: Die Angst vor der Megadürre des Jahres 1540 geht um". Neue Zürcher Zeitung (in German). Retrieved 2018-08-06.
  •   Media related to Drought at Wikimedia Commons
  •   The dictionary definition of drought at Wiktionary
  •   Drought at Wikibooks
  • GIDMaPS Global Integrated Drought Monitoring and Prediction System, University of California, Irvine
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Drought&oldid=1262430555"