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Endocannibalism

Not to be confused with Endocannabinoid.

Endocannibalism is a practice of cannibalism in one's own locality or community.[1] In most cases this refers to the consumption of the remains of the deceased in a mortuary context.[2]

As a cultural practice

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Herodotus (3.38) mentions funerary cannibalism among the Callatiae, a tribe of India.

It is believed that some South American indigenous cultures, such as the Mayoruna people, practiced endocannibalism in the past.[3] The Amahuaca Indians of Peru picked particles of bone out of the ashes of a cremation fire, ground them with corn, and drank them as a kind of gruel.[4] For the Wari' people in western Brazil, endocannibalism was an act of compassion where the roasted remains of fellow Wari' were consumed in a mortuary setting;[5] ideally, the affines (relatives by marriage) would consume the entire corpse, and rejecting the practice would be offensive to the direct family members.[5] Ya̧nomamö consumed the ground-up bones and ashes of cremated kinsmen in an act of mourning; this is still classified as endocannibalism, although, strictly speaking, "flesh" is not eaten.[6] Such practices are generally not believed to have been driven by need for protein or other food.[3]

Medical implications

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Kuru is a type of transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE) caused by prions that are found in humans.[7] Human prion diseases come in sporadic, genetic and infectious forms. Kuru was the first infectious human prion disease discovered.[8] It spread through the Fore people of Papua New Guinea, among whom relatives consumed the bodies of the deceased to return the "life force" of the deceased to the hamlet.[9] Kuru was 8 to 9 times more prevalent in women and children than in men at its peak because, while the men of the village consumed muscle tissues, the women and children would eat the rest of the body, including the brain, where the prion particles were particularly concentrated.[10] Historical research suggests the kuru epidemic may have originated around 1900 from a single individual who lived on the edge of Fore territory, and who is thought to have spontaneously developed some form of Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, a related prion disease. Oral history records that cannibalism began within the Fore in the late 19th century. Research at University College London identified a gene that protects against prion diseases by studying the Fore people.[11]

Currently there is no treatment to cure or even control kuru, but there are numerous programs being funded by universities and national institutes, such as the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS). This institute is currently funding research into the genetic and cellular process behind the development and transmission of kuru and other TSE diseases.[12]

Prehistory of endocannibalism controversy

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Whether or not endocannibalism was commonplace through much of human prehistory remains controversial.

A team led by Michael Alpers, a lifelong investigator of kuru,[13] found genes that protect against similar prion diseases were widespread, suggesting that such endocannibalism could have once been common around the world.[14][15]

A genetic study with a range of authors published by the University College London in 2009 declared evidence of a "powerful episode" of natural selection in recent humans. This evidence is found in the 127V polymorphism, a mutation which protects against the kuru disease. In simpler terms, it would appear the kuru disease has affected all humans to the extent we have a specialised immune response to it.[16] However, a study drawing from hundreds of resources in 2013 claims further that 127V derives from an ancient and widespread cannibalistic practice, not related to kuru specifically, but "kuru-like epidemics" which appeared around the time of the extinction of the Neanderthals who co-existed with humans. This allows the suggestion that cannibalistic practises may have caused diseases which killed the neanderthals, but not the humans because of the 127V resistance gene.[17]

Cro-Magnons associated with the Magdalenian culture in the European late Upper Palaeolithic (~23-14,000 years ago) are suggested to have practiced funerary endocannibalism.[18]

List of cultures known for endocannibalism

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See also

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References

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  1. ^ Vilaca, Aparecida (2000). "Relations between Funerary Cannibalism and Warfare Cannibalism: The Question of Predation". Ethnos. 65 (1): 83–106. doi:10.1080/001418400360652. S2CID 143616841.
  2. ^ Metcalf, Peter (1 January 1987). "Wine of the Corpse: Endocannibalism and the Great Feast of the Dead in Borneo". Representations. 17 (17): 96–109. doi:10.2307/3043794. JSTOR 3043794.
  3. ^ a b Dorn, Georgette M. & Tenenbaum, Barbara A. (1996). Encyclopedia of Latin American history and culture. New York: C. Scribner's Sons. pp. 535–37. ISBN 978-0-684-19253-6. Archived from the original on 7 August 2007. Retrieved 5 August 2007.
  4. ^ Dole, Gertrude (1962). "Division of Anthropology: Endocannibalism Among the Amahuaca Indians". Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences. 24 (5 Series II): 567–73. doi:10.1111/j.2164-0947.1962.tb01432.x.
  5. ^ a b Conklin, Beth (2001). Consuming Grief. University of Texas Press.
  6. ^ "Endocannibalism of the Yanomami". Users.rcn.com. Retrieved 31 March 2010.
  7. ^ Wadsworth, J. D. F.; Joiner, S.; Linehan, J. M.; Desbruslais, M.; Fox, K.; Cooper, S.; Cronier, S.; Asante, E. A.; Mead, S.; Brandner, S.; Hill, A. F.; Collinge, J. (2008). "Kuru prions and sporadic Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease prions have equivalent transmission properties in transgenic and wild-type mice". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 105 (10): 3885–90. Bibcode:2008PNAS..105.3885W. doi:10.1073/pnas.0800190105. JSTOR 25461336. PMC 2268835. PMID 18316717.
  8. ^ Haïk, Stéphane; Brandel, Jean-Philippe (1 August 2014). "Infectious prion diseases in humans: Cannibalism, iatrogenicity and zoonoses". Infection, Genetics and Evolution. 26: 303–12. doi:10.1016/j.meegid.2014.06.010. PMID 24956437.
  9. ^ Diamond JM (1997). Guns, germs, and steel: the fates of human societies. New York: W.W. Norton. p. 208. ISBN 978-0-393-03891-0.
  10. ^ Kuru at eMedicine
  11. ^ "A Tribe in Papua New Guinea Reveals The Upside of Cannibalism". 11 June 2015. Retrieved 1 September 2015.
  12. ^ "Kuru Information Page: National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS)". ninds.nih.gov. Retrieved 1 September 2015.
  13. ^ "A life of determination". Med.monash.edu.au. 27 February 2009. Retrieved 31 March 2010.
  14. ^ Mead, Simon; Stumpf, Michael P. H.; Whitfield, Jerome; Beck, Jonathan A.; Poulter, Mark; Campbell, Tracy; et al. (2003). "Balancing selection at the prion protein gene consistent with prehistoric kurulike epidemics". Science. 300 (5619): 640–43. Bibcode:2003Sci...300..640M. doi:10.1126/science.1083320. PMID 12690204. S2CID 19269845.
  15. ^ Danny Kingsley (11 April 2003). "Genes suggest cannibalism common in human past". ABC Science Online. Retrieved 31 March 2010.
  16. ^ Mead, Simon; Whitfield, Jerome; Poulter, Mark; Shah, Paresh; Uphill, James; Campbell, Tracy; Al-Dujaily, Huda; Hummerich, Holger; Beck, Jon; Mein, Charles A.; Verzilli, Claudio; Whittaker, John; Alpers, Michael P.; Collinge, John (2009). "A Novel Protective Prion Protein Variant that Colocalizes with Kuru Exposure" (PDF). New England Journal of Medicine. 361 (21): 2056–65. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa0809716. PMID 19923577.
  17. ^ Liberski, Pawel (2013). "Kuru: A Journey Back in Time from Papua New Guinea to the Neanderthals' Extinction". Pathogens. 2 (3): 472–505. doi:10.3390/pathogens2030472. PMC 4235695. PMID 25437203.
  18. ^ Marsh, William A; Bello, Silvia (1 November 2023). "Cannibalism and burial in the late Upper Palaeolithic: Combining archaeological and genetic evidence". Quaternary Science Reviews. 319: 108309. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2023.108309.
  19. ^ Dole, Gertrude Evelyn. "Endocannibalism among the Amahuaca Indians". Yale. Retrieved 19 September 2021.
  20. ^ a b c d Castano, Edwin. "Endocannibalism". Martian Herald. Retrieved 19 September 2021.
  21. ^ Robb, Alice (19 June 2014). "Will Overpopulation and Resource Scarcity Drive Cannibalism?". The New Republic. Retrieved 19 September 2021.
  22. ^ Thomas, Ben. "Eating people is wrong – but it's also widespread and sacred". Aeon. Retrieved 19 September 2021.
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