GNSS reflectometry (or GNSS-R) involves making measurements from the reflections from the Earth of navigation signals from Global Navigation Satellite Systems such as GPS. The idea of using reflected GNSS signals for earth observation was first proposed in 1993 by Martin-Neira.[1] It was also investigated by researchers at NASA Langley Research Center[2] and is also known as GPS reflectometry.
GNSS reflectometry is passive sensing that takes advantage of and relies on multiple active sources - with the satellites generating the navigation signals. For this, the GNSS receiver measures the signal delay from the satellite (the pseudorange measurement) and the rate of change of the range between satellite and observer (the Doppler measurement). The surface area of the reflected GNSS signal also provides the two parameters time delay and frequency change. As a result, the Delay Doppler Map (DDM) can be obtained as GNSS-R observable. The shape and power distribution of the signal within the DDM is dictated by two reflecting surface conditions: its dielectric properties and its roughness state. Further derivation of geophysical information rely on these measurements.
GNSS reflectometry is a bi-static radar, where transmitter and receiver are separated by a significant distance. Since in GNSS reflectometry one receiver simultaneously can track multiple transmitters (i.e. GNSS satellites), the system also has the nature of multi-static radar. The receiver of the reflected GNSS signal can be of different kinds: Ground stations, ship measurements, airplanes or satellites, like the UK-DMC satellite, part of the Disaster Monitoring Constellation built by Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd. It carried a secondary reflectometry payload that has demonstrated the feasibility of receiving and measuring GPS signals reflected from the surface of the Earth's oceans from its track in low Earth orbit to determine wave motion and windspeed.[3][4]
Research applications of space-based GNSS-R are focused in the following areas:
- Altimetry [5][6]
- Oceanography (Wave Height and Wind Speed)[3]
- Cryosphere monitoring[2][7]
- Soil moisture monitoring[8]
Data from the Cyclone Global Navigation Satellite System (CYGNSS) mission have been used to investigate many of these areas.
GNSS Interferometric Reflectometry (or GNSS-IR) is a specialized case of GNSS-R. Here the receiving instrument is on the surface of the Earth. In this technique the interference of the direct and reflected signals is used rather than a Delay Doppler Map or measuring the two signals separately. In the example shown, a GNSS antenna is ~2.5 meters above a planar surface. Both direct (blue) and reflected (red) GNSS signals are shown. As a GNSS satellite rises or sets, the elevation angle changes; the direct and reflected signals will generate an interference pattern. The frequency of this interference pattern can be used to extract the height of the antenna above the planar surface, the reflector height. Changes in reflector height can be directly used to measure water surfaces [9] and the height of snow.[10]
References
edit- ^ Martín-Neira, M. "A passive reflectometry and interferometry system (PARIS): Application to ocean altimetry". ESA Journal. 17 (4): 331–355.
- ^ a b Komjathy, A.; Maslanik, J.; Zavorotny, V.U.; Axelrad, P.; Katzberg, S.J. (2000). "Sea ice remote sensing using surface reflected GPS signals". IGARSS 2000. IEEE 2000 International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium. Taking the Pulse of the Planet: The Role of Remote Sensing in Managing the Environment. Proceedings (Cat. No.00CH37120). Vol. 7. Honolulu, HI, USA: IEEE. pp. 2855–2857. doi:10.1109/IGARSS.2000.860270. hdl:2060/20020004347. ISBN 978-0-7803-6359-5. S2CID 62042731.
- ^ a b Gleason, S.; Hodgart, S.; Yiping Sun; Gommenginger, C.; MacKin, S.; Adjrad, M.; Unwin, M. (2005). "Detection and Processing of bistatically reflected GPS signals from low Earth orbit for the purpose of ocean remote sensing". IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing. 43 (6): 1229–1241. Bibcode:2005ITGRS..43.1229G. doi:10.1109/TGRS.2005.845643. S2CID 6851145.
- ^ M. P. Clarizia et al., Analysis of GNSS-R delay-Doppler maps from the UK-DMC satellite over the ocean Archived 2011-06-06 at the Wayback Machine, Geophysical Research Letters, 29 January 2009.
- ^ Semmling, A. M.; Wickert, J.; Schön, S.; Stosius, R.; Markgraf, M.; Gerber, T.; Ge, M.; Beyerle, G. (15 July 2013). "A zeppelin experiment to study airborne altimetry using specular Global Navigation Satellite System reflections: A ZEPPELIN EXPERIMENT TO STUDY AIRBORNE ALTIMETRY". Radio Science. 48 (4): 427–440. doi:10.1002/rds.20049.
- ^ Rius, Antonio; Cardellach, Estel; Fabra, Fran; Li, Weiqiang; Ribó, Serni; Hernández-Pajares, Manuel (2017). "Feasibility of GNSS-R Ice Sheet Altimetry in Greenland Using TDS-1". Remote Sensing. 9 (7): 742. Bibcode:2017RemS....9..742R. doi:10.3390/rs9070742. hdl:2117/114540. ISSN 2072-4292.
- ^ Rivas, M.B.; Maslanik, J.A.; Axelrad, P. (22 September 2009). "Bistatic Scattering of GPS Signals Off Arctic Sea Ice". IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing. 48 (3): 1548–1553. doi:10.1109/tgrs.2009.2029342. ISSN 0196-2892. S2CID 12668682.
- ^ Rodriguez-Alvarez, Nereida; Camps, Adriano; Vall-llossera, Mercè; Bosch-Lluis, Xavier; Monerris, Alessandra; Ramos-Perez, Isaac; Valencia, Enric; Marchan-Hernandez, Juan Fernando; Martinez-Fernandez, Jose; Baroncini-Turricchia, Guido; Perez-Gutierrez, Carlos (2011). "Land Geophysical Parameters Retrieval Using the Interference Pattern GNSS-R Technique". IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing. 49 (1): 71–84. Bibcode:2011ITGRS..49...71R. doi:10.1109/TGRS.2010.2049023. ISSN 0196-2892. S2CID 27516781.
- ^ Larson, Kristine M.; Ray, Richard D.; Nievinski, Felipe; Freymueller, Jeff (September 2013). "The Accidental Tide Gauge" (PDF). IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters. 10 (5): 1200. doi:10.1109/LGRS.2012.2236075. hdl:2060/20140013285. Retrieved 22 June 2024.
- ^ Larson, Kristine M.; Gutmann, Ethan; Zavorotny, Valery; Braun, John; Williams, Mark; Nievinski, Felipe (September 2009). "Can we measure snow depth with GPS receivers". Geophysical Research Letters. 36 (17). Bibcode:2009GeoRL..3617502L. doi:10.1029/2009GL039430. Retrieved 23 June 2024.
Further reading
edit- Zavorotny, Valery U.; Gleason, Scott; Cardellach, Estel; Camps, Adriano (2014). "Tutorial on Remote Sensing Using GNSS Bistatic Radar of Opportunity". IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Magazine. Vol. 2, no. 4. pp. 8–45. doi:10.1109/MGRS.2014.2374220. ISSN 2168-6831.
- Larson, Kristine M.; Small, Eric E.; Braun, John; Zavorotny, Valery (2014). "Environmental Sensing: A Revolution in GNSS Applications". InsideGNSS. Vol. 9, no. 4. pp. 36–46. ISSN 1559-503X. Archived from the original on 15 March 2016. Retrieved 15 March 2016.
- Cardellach, Estel (2015): E-GEM – GNSS-R Earth Monitoring; State of the Art Description Document Archived 2020-11-28 at the Wayback Machine.
- Emery, William and Camps, Adriano (2017): Introduction to Satellite Remote Sensing 1st Edition Atmosphere, Ocean, Land and Cryosphere Applications, Chapter 6: Remote Sensing Using Global Navigation Satellite System Signals of Opportunity, Elsevier, 20 September 2017, Paperback ISBN 9780128092545, eBook ISBN 9780128092590
- A complete list of references maintained by the GNSS-R Community can be found at: https://www.ice.csic.es/personal/rius/gnss_r_bibliography/index.html
External links
edit- Reflecting on the future Archived 2007-05-14 at the Wayback Machine, The Engineer Online, 28 November 2006.
- GNSS Applications and Methods, Artech House, September 2009.