Old Malayalam, the inscriptional language found in Kerala from c. 9th to c. 13th century CE,[1] is the earliest attested form of Malayalam.[2][3] The language was employed in several official records and transactions (at the level of the Chera Perumal kings as well as the upper-caste village temples).[2] Old Malayalam was mostly written in Vatteluttu script (with Pallava/Southern Grantha characters).[2] Most of the inscriptions were found from the northern districts of Kerala, those lie adjacent to Tulu Nadu.[2] The origin of Malayalam calendar dates back to year 825 CE.[4][5][6]
Old Malayalam | |
---|---|
പഴയ മലയാളം Paḻaya Malayāḷam | |
![]() Old Malayalam (Vattezhuthu script) | |
Region | Kerala |
Era | Developed into Middle Malayalam by c. 13th century |
Dravidian
| |
Early forms | |
Vatteluttu script (with Pallava/Southern Grantha characters) | |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-3 | – |
Glottolog | None |
The existence of Old Malayalam is sometimes disputed by scholars.[7] They regard the Chera Perumal inscriptional language as a diverging dialect or variety of contemporary Tamil.[7]
History
editThe start of the development of Old Malayalam from a dialect of Middle Tamil can be dated to c. 8th century CE.[8][9][10] It remained a west coast dialect until c. 9th century CE or a little later.[8][11]
The formation of the language is mainly attributed to geographical separation of Kerala from the Tamil country[11] and the influence of immigrant Namboodiri Brahmins in Kerala (who also knew Sanskrit and Prakrit).[2]
The later evolution of Old Malayalam is visible in the inscriptions dated to c. 9th to c. 12th century CE.[12][13]
Differences from contemporary Tamil
editAlthough Old Malayalam closely resembles contemporary Tamil it also shows characteristic new features.[14] Major differences between Old Malayalam (the Chera Perumal inscriptional language) and contemporary inscriptional/literary Tamil of the eastern country are:[2]
- Nasalisation of adjoining sounds
- Retention of palatal sounds instead of merger with dental sounds
- Nasal+plosive clusters becoming nasal+nasals
- Contraction of vowels
- Rejection of gender verbs
Old Malayalam was still described by scholars as "Tamil", also "mala-nattu Tamil" (a "desya-bhasa").[2][15]
Literary compositions
editThere is no Old Malayalam literature preserved from this period (c. 9th to c. 12th century CE).[7] Some of the earliest Malayalam literary compositions appear after this period.[12][13]
These include the Bhasa Kautiliya, the Ramacaritam, and the Thirunizhalmala.[16] The Bhasa Kautiliya is generally dated to a period after 11th century CE.[2] Ramacaritam, which was written by certain Ciramakavi who, according to poet Ulloor S. P. Iyer, was Sri Virarama Varman.[16] However the claim that it was written in Southern Kerala is expired on the basis of modern discoveries.[17] Other experts, like Chirakkal T. Balakrishnan Nair, K. M. George, M. M. Purushothaman Nair, and P. V. Krishnan Nair, state that the origin of the book is in Kasaragod district in North Malabar region.[17] They cite the use of certain words in the book and also the fact that the manuscript of the book was recovered from Nileshwaram in North Malabar.[18] The influence of Ramacharitam is mostly seen in the contemporary literary works of Northern Kerala.[17] The words used in Ramacharitam such as Nade (Mumbe), Innum (Iniyum), Ninna (Ninne), Chaaduka (Eriyuka) are special features of the dialect spoken in North Malabar (Kasaragod-Kannur region).[17] Furthermore, the Thiruvananthapuram mentioned in Ramacharitham is not the Thiruvananthapuram in Southern Kerala.[17] But it is Ananthapura Lake Temple of Kumbla in the northernmost Kasaragod district of Kerala.[17] The word Thiru is used just by the meaning Honoured.[17] Today it is widely accepted that Ramacharitham was written somewhere in North Malabar (most likely near Kasaragod).[17] Ramacaritam is regarded as "the first literary work in Malayalam".[11] According to Hermann Gundert, who compiled the first dictionary of the Malayalam language, Ramacaritam shows the 'ancient style' of the Malayalam language.[19]
Folk Songs
editFor the first 600 years of the Malayalam calendar, Malayalam literature remained in a preliminary stage. During this time, Malayalam literature consisted mainly of various genres of songs (Pattu).[20] Folk songs are the oldest literary form in Malayalam.[21] They were just oral songs.[21] Many of them were related to agricultural activities, including Pulayar Pattu, Pulluvan Pattu, Njattu Pattu, Koythu Pattu, etc.[21] Other Ballads of Folk Song period include the Vadakkan Pattukal (Northern songs) in North Malabar region and the Thekkan Pattukal (Southern songs) in Southern Travancore.[21] Some of the earliest Mappila songs (Muslim songs) were also folk songs.[21]
Old Malayalam inscriptions
editOld Malayalam was an inscriptional language.[22] No literary works in Old Malayalam have been found so far with the possible exceptions such as Ramacharitam and Thirunizhalmala.[7] Some of the discovered inscriptions in Old Malayalam are listed below on the basis of their expected chronological order, also including their locations and key contents.[22] Most of them are written in a mixture of Vatteluttu and Grantha scripts.[22]
Inscription | Location | Notes |
---|---|---|
Quilon Syrian copper plates- near Kollam (849/850 CE)[22] |
| |
Vazhappally copper plate Inscription - near Vazhappally (882/883 CE)[24] |
|
|
Sukapuram inscription - near Ponnani (9th/10th century CE)[22] |
|
|
Chokkur inscription (Chokoor, Puthur village) - near Koduvally (920 CE) |
|
|
Nedumpuram Thali inscription, Thichoor Wadakkanchery (922 CE) |
|
|
Avittathur inscription (925 CE) |
|
|
Ramanthali/Ezhimala-Narayankannur inscription (Plate I - 929 CE and Plate II - 1075 CE) |
|
|
Triprangode inscription (932 CE) |
|
|
Poranghattiri inscription (Chaliyar) (932 CE) |
|
|
Indianur inscription (Kottakkal) (932 CE) |
|
|
Thrippunithura inscription (935 CE) |
|
|
Panthalayani Kollam inscription (973 CE) |
|
|
Mampalli copper plate inscription (974 CE) |
|
|
Koyilandy Jumu'ah Mosque inscription (10th century CE) |
|
|
Eramam inscription (1020 CE) | ||
Pullur Kodavalam inscription (1020 CE) | ||
Tiruvadur inscription (c. 1020 CE) |
| |
Trichambaram inscription
(c. 1040 CE) |
|
|
Maniyur inscription
(c. 11th century) |
|
|
Kinalur inscription
(c. 1083 CE) |
| |
Panthalayani Kollam inscription
(c. 1089 CE) |
| |
Tiruvalla Copper Plates
(Huzur Treasury Plates) (10th-11th centuries CE) |
| |
Kannapuram inscription
(beginning of the 12th century) |
|
|
Muchundi Mosque inscription (Kozhikode)
(beginning of the 13th century) |
|
|
Viraraghava copper plates inscription
(1225 CE)[44] |
|
|
Gallery
edit-
Maniyur inscription
-
Muchundi Mosque inscription (Kozhikode)
-
Quilon Syrian copper plates (plates 1 and 4)
-
Quilon Syrian copper plates (plate 6)
-
Perunna inscription (Rama Kulasekhara)
-
Viraraghava copper plates (Viraraghava)
-
Mampalli copper plate (Srivallabhan Kotha)
References
edit- ^ a b c d e f g M. G. S. Narayanan. "Kozhikkodinte Katha". Malayalam/Essays. Mathrubhumi Books. Second Edition (2017) ISBN 978-81-8267-114-0
- ^ a b c d e f g h Narayanan, M. G. S. (2013). Perumals of Kerala. Thrissur: CosmoBooks. pp. 380–82. ISBN 9788188765072.
- ^ Ayyar, L. V. Ramaswami (1936). The Evolution of Malayalam Morphology (1st ed.). Trichur: Rama Varma Research Institute. p. 3.
- ^ "Kollam Era" (PDF). Indian Journal History of Science. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 May 2015. Retrieved 30 December 2014.
- ^ Broughton Richmond (1956), Time measurement and calendar construction, p. 218
- ^ R. Leela Devi (1986). History of Kerala. Vidyarthi Mithram Press & Book Depot. p. 408.
- ^ a b c d Freeman, Rich (2003). "The Literary Culture of Premodern Kerala". In Sheldon, Pollock (ed.). Literary Cultures in History. University of California Press. pp. 445–46. ISBN 9780520228214.
- ^ a b Karashima, Noburu, ed. (2014). A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. pp. 152–53. ISBN 978-0-19-809977-2.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumals of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 438-42.
- ^ Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju. "Malayalam language". Encyclopædia Britannica.
- ^ a b c Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju. "Encyclopædia Britannica".
- ^ a b Menon, T. K. Krishna (1939). A Primer of Malayalam Literature. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 9788120606036.
- ^ a b Baby, Saumya (2007). L. V. Ramaswami Aiyar's Contributions to Malayalam Linguistics: A Critical Analysis (PDF). Department of Malayalam, Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit.
- ^ Narayanan, M. G. S. (1972). Cultural Symbiosis in Kerala. Kerala: Kerala Historical Society. p. 18.
- ^ Veluthat, Kesavan (2018). "History and Historiography in Constituting a Region: The Case of Kerala". Studies in People's History. 5 (1): 13–31. doi:10.1177/2348448918759852. ISSN 2348-4489. S2CID 166060066.
- ^ a b Aiyer, Ulloor S. Parameshwara (1990). Kerala Sahitya Caritram. Trivandrum: University of Kerala.
- ^ a b c d e f g h "School of Distance Education" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 February 2019.
- ^ Leelavathi, Dr. M., Malayala Kavitha Sahithya Chrithram (History of Malayalam poetry)
- ^ Gundert, Hermann (1865). Malayalabhasha Vyakaranam.
- ^ Dr. K. Ayyappa Panicker (2006). A Short History of Malayalam Literature. Thiruvananthapuram: Department of Information and Public Relations, Kerala.
- ^ a b c d e Mathrubhumi Yearbook Plus - 2019 (Malayalam ed.). Kozhikode: P. V. Chandran, Managing Editor, Mathrubhumi Printing & Publishing Company Limited, Kozhikode. 2018. p. 453. ASIN 8182676444.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Narayanan, M. G. S. (2013) [1972]. Perumals of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks. ISBN 9788188765072.
- ^ a b Cereti, C. G. (2009). "The Pahlavi Signatures on the Quilon Copper Plates". In Sundermann, W.; Hintze, A.; de Blois, F. (eds.). Exegisti Monumenta: Festschrift in Honour of Nicholas Sims-Williams. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 9783447059374.
- ^ Devadevan, Manu V. (2020). "Changes in Land Relations and the Changing Fortunes of the Cēra State". The 'Early Medieval' Origins of India. Cambridge University Press. p. 128. ISBN 9781108494571.
- ^ Rao, T. A. Gopinatha. Travancore Archaeological Series (Volume II, Part II). 8-14.
- ^ a b c d Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 435.
- ^ 'Changes in Land Relations during the Decline of the Cera State,' In Kesavan Veluthat and Donald R. Davis Jr. (eds), Irreverent History: Essays for M.G.S. Narayanan, Primus Books, New Delhi, 2014. 74-75.
- ^ a b c d e Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 475-76.
- ^ a b c Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 483.
- ^ a b Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 448-49.
- ^ a b c Narayanan, M. G. S. 2013. 'Index to Chera Inscriptions', in Perumāḷs of Kerala, M. G. S Narayanan, pp. 218 and 478–79. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks.
- ^ Rao, T. A. Gopinatha. 1907-08 (1981 reprint). Mamballi Plates of Srivallavangodai', in Epigraphica Indica, Vol IX. pp. 234–39. Calcutta. Govt of India.
- ^ a b c Aiyer, K. V. Subrahmanya (ed.), South Indian Inscriptions. VIII, no. 162, Madras: Govt of India, Central Publication Branch, Calcutta, 1932. p. 69.
- ^ a b c d e Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 455.
- ^ Annual Reports of Indian Epigraphy (1963-64), No. 125.
- ^ a b Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 68-70, 84 and 454.
- ^ a b c Narayanan, M.G.S. THE IDENTITY AND DATE OF KING MANUKULĀDITYA. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, Vol. 31, 1969, 73–78.
- ^ a b c d Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 480-81.
- ^ a b Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 465.
- ^ a b Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 486.
- ^ a b c d e f Narayanan, M. G. S. 2013. 'Index to Chera Inscriptions', in Perumāḷs of Kerala, M. G. S Narayanan, pp. 484–85. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks.
- ^ a b c d Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 470.
- ^ Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 197.
- ^ Veluthat, Kesavan. The Early Medieval in South India. Delhi: Oxford University Press. 2009. 152, and 154.
- ^ a b Epigraphica Indica, Volume IV. [V. Venkayya, 1896-97] pp. 290-7.
- ^ a b c Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 222, 279, and 299.
Further reading
edit- Dr. K. Ayyappa Panicker (2006). A Short History of Malayalam Literature. Thiruvananthapuram: Department of Information and Public Relations, Kerala.
- Menon, A. Sreedhara (2007). A Survey of Kerala History. DC Books. ISBN 9788126415786.
- Mathrubhumi Yearbook Plus - 2019 (Malayalam ed.). Kozhikode: P. V. Chandran, Managing Editor, Mathrubhumi Printing & Publishing Company Limited, Kozhikode. 2018.