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Volcanic landslide

A volcanic landslide or volcanogenic landslide is a type of mass wasting that takes place at volcanoes.

A landslide deposit obstructing a lava lake in the north crater of Mount Yasur on Tanna Island, Vanuatu

Occurrences

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Black dashed lines delineate 17 distinct landslides that have occurred around the Hawaiian Islands over the last several million years

All volcanic edifices are susceptible to landslides, particularly stratovolcanoes and shield volcanoes where landslides are important processes.[1] Volcanic landslides range in size from less than 1 km3 (0.24 cu mi) to more than 100 km3 (24 cu mi).[2] The largest volcanic landslides on Earth occur from submarine volcanoes and are several times larger than those that occur on land. Submarine landslides with volumes of 100–150 km3 (24–36 cu mi) have occurred in the Canary Islands within the last 43 million years, but the largest submarine landslides could have been up to 900 km3 (220 cu mi) in volume.[3] Massive submarine landslides have also taken place in the Hawaiian Islands over the last several million years, the largest of which constitute significant portions of the islands from which they originated.[4]

Smaller landslides have also been identified at volcanoes on Mars and Venus.[5][6] Martian landslides reach lengths of 90 km (56 mi) and more while the largest Venusian landslides extend only about 50 km (31 mi). The most dramatic landslide deposits on Venus occur beneath the slopes of volcanoes. Since erosion rates on Venus are much lower than those on Earth due to the lack of water on the surface, landslides are an important mechanism in wearing down mountain regions on Venus. The rounded hills of the complexly deformed tessera, or tile-like, terrain on Venus have probably been modified by numerous landslides.[6]

Types

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Debris avalanche deposit of Tata Sabaya in Bolivia
 
Cross-section diagram showing (a) pre-collapse volcano, (b) after collapse, (c) new edifice built on top of collapsed old edifice

At volcanoes, the term landslide is commonly used for slope movements with shear and displacement in a relatively narrow zone.[7] They can be in the form of debris avalanches, debris flows, slumps and rockfalls.[7][8] A debris avalanche is a sudden, very rapid flow of rock and soil in response to gravity. It is a common middle stage in the transformation of a cohesive debris flow from a landslide or rockslide. Debris avalanches may be restricted to grain flows or granular flows, in which flow mechanics are governed by particle interactions involving friction and collision. Debris flows, in contrast, owe much of their behaviour to excess pore-water pressure and a pore fluid that is viscous and contains fine sediment.[7]

Sector collapses

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Main article: Sector collapse

The largest landslides from volcanoes are called sector or edifice collapses.[7] Prehistoric sector collapses are preserved in the geological record in the form of debris avalanche deposits and collapse scars.[9][10][11] Debris avalanche deposits can be found up to 20 km (12 mi) from the site of collapse. Collapse scars are also an indicator of sector collapse and are often described as "amphitheatre" or "horseshoe" shaped.[11] Such collapse scars, open at one end, have long been noted in many volcanic regions around the world.[2] The largest volcanic island sector collapse in historic times took place in 1888 when Ritter Island collapsed off the northern coast of Papua New Guinea.[12][13] Edifice reconstruction generally must occur before a second sector collapse.[7]

Prehistoric
Historic

Flank collapses

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The 2010 Mount Meager landslide deposit in British Columbia, Canada

Flank collapses are much smaller than sector collapses, but they may also yield far-reaching debris flows. Flank collapses differ from sector collapses in that they only involve the volcano flank while sector collapses are large enough to involve the volcano summit. The smaller size of a flank collapse indicates that there need be no repose time before another flank collapse occurs, and hence they can be treated as random events.[7]

Prehistoric
Historic

Causes

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The Chaos Crags with the Chaos Jumbles in the foreground

Several conditions can trigger landslides at volcanoes:

Hazards

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The southeastern side of Mount Iriga in the Philippines contains a large horseshoe-shaped crater formed by a sector collapse

Large landslides from volcanoes often bury valleys with tens to hundreds of metres of rock debris, forming a chaotic landscape marked by dozens of small hills and closed depressions. If the landslide deposit is thick enough, it may dam streams to form lakes. These lakes may eventually drain catastrophically to create floods and lahars downstream.[2]

Landslides that remove a large portion of a volcanic cone may abruptly decrease pressure on shallow magmatic and hydrothermal systems, which can generate explosions ranging from a small steam explosion to large steam and magma-driven directed blasts. These result in tephra and ash fall hazards for surrounding areas.[2]

Large horseshoe-shaped craters formed by landslides at volcanoes will likely direct subsequent lava flows, pyroclastic flows or lahars toward its breached opening if the primary eruptive vent is located within these deep craters.[2]

The collapse of island or coastal volcanoes from giant landslides can generate tsunamis that could potentially devastate large areas of coastal land.[23]

Disasters

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Destruction in Banten caused by the 2018 Sunda Strait tsunami

Historically, the most deadly volcanic landslide occurred in 1792 when sliding debris from Mount Mayuyama in Japan slammed into the Ariake Sea and generated a tsunami that reached the opposite shore and killed nearly 15,000 people.[2]

The sector collapse of Ritter Island in 1888 generated a tsunami with runups of up to 15 m (49 ft) that caused damage more than 700 km (430 mi) away and killed anywhere between 500 and 3,000 people on neighbouring islands.[24][25][26]

A landslide originating from Devastation Glacier on the southern flank of the Mount Meager massif in British Columbia, Canada, buried and killed a group of four geologists at the confluence of Devastation Creek and Meager Creek in July 1975.[27][28]

In 1979, a landslide from the Indonesian volcano Iliwerung produced 9 m-high (30 ft) waves that killed more than 500 people.[29] In December 2018, another landslide-induced tsunami took place in Indonesia's Sunda Strait following a collapse of Anak Krakatoa.[30] The waves struck about 313 km (194 mi) of coastline with various heights, killing at least 373 people and damaging many buildings.[31][32]

See also

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References

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  This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Geological Survey.

  1. ^ "Volcanic Processes—Landslides". National Park Service. Retrieved 14 April 2023.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "Landslides are common on tall, steep, and weak volcanic cones". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 2023-03-27.
  3. ^ "The planet's largest landslides happen on submarine volcanoes". National Oceanography Centre. 2017-12-12. Retrieved 2023-04-02.
  4. ^ "Volcano Watch — Slip-sliding away—Disassembling Hawaiian volcanoes". United States Geological Survey. 2014-01-23. Retrieved 2023-04-02.
  5. ^ McGuire, W. J. (1996). "Volcano instability: a review of contemporary themes". Geological Society Special Publication. 110. Geological Society of London: 1–23. doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1996.110.01.01. S2CID 128674065.
  6. ^ a b   This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Cleggett-Halaim, Paula; Doyle, Jim (1992). "Large Landslides Found on Venus". NASA. Retrieved 14 April 2023.
  7. ^ a b c d e f Scott, Kevin M.; Macías, José Luis; Naranjo, José Antonio; Rodríguez, Sergio; McGeehin, John P. (2001). Catastrophic Debris Flows Transformed from Landslides in Volcanic Terrains: Mobility, Hazard Assessment, and Mitigation Strategies (Report). United States Geological Survey. p. 6. ISBN 0-607-98578-X.
  8. ^ Rault, C.; Thiery, Y.; Chaput, M.; Reninger, P. A.; Dewez, T. J. B.; Michon, L.; Samyn, K.; Aunay, B. (2022). "Landslide Processes Involved in Volcano Dismantling From Past to Present: The Remarkable Open-Air Laboratory of the Cirque de Salazie (Reunion Island)" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface. 127 (5). American Geophysical Union: 1. doi:10.1029/2021JF006257. S2CID 248353147.
  9. ^ a b c d Watt, Sebastian F. L. (2019-10-15). "The evolution of volcanic systems following sector collapse". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 384: 280–303. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2019.05.012. ISSN 0377-0273. S2CID 181821094.
  10. ^ Kervyn, M.; Ernst, G. G. J.; Klaudius, J.; Keller, J.; Mbede, E.; Jacobs, P. (2008-10-28). "Remote sensing study of sector collapses and debris avalanche deposits at Oldoinyo Lengai and Kerimasi volcanoes, Tanzania". International Journal of Remote Sensing. 29 (22): 6565–6595. Bibcode:2008IJRS...29.6565K. doi:10.1080/01431160802168137. ISSN 0143-1161. S2CID 128817424.
  11. ^ a b Romero, Jorge E.; Polacci, Margherita; Watt, Sebastian; Kitamura, Shigeru; Tormey, Daniel; Sielfeld, Gerd; Arzilli, Fabio; La Spina, Giuseppe; Franco, Luis; Burton, Mike; Polanco, Edmundo (2021). "Volcanic Lateral Collapse Processes in Mafic Arc Edifices: A Review of Their Driving Processes, Types and Consequences". Frontiers in Earth Science. 9. doi:10.3389/feart.2021.639825. ISSN 2296-6463.
  12. ^ Karstens, Jens; Berndt, Christian; Urlaub, Morelia; Watt, Sebastian F.L.; Micallef, Aaron; Ray, Melanie; Klaucke, Ingo; Muff, Sina; Klaeschen, Dirk; Kühn, Michel; Roth, Theresa; Böttner, Christoph; Schramm, Bettina; Elger, Judith; Brune, Sascha (2019). "From gradual spreading to catastrophic collapse – Reconstruction of the 1888 Ritter Island volcanic sector collapse from high-resolution 3D seismic data" (PDF). Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 517: 1–13. Bibcode:2019E&PSL.517....1K. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2019.04.009. ISSN 0012-821X. S2CID 150016618.
  13. ^ "When Volcanoes Fall Down—Catastrophic Collapse and Debris Avalanches" (PDF). Fact Sheet 2019–3023. United States Geological Survey. 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-03-06. Retrieved 2021-02-07.
  14. ^ Kokelaar, Peter; Romagnoli, Claudia (1995-08-01). "Sector collapse, sedimentation and clast population evolution at an active island-arc volcano: Stromboli, Italy". Bulletin of Volcanology. 57 (4): 240–262. Bibcode:1995BVol...57..240K. doi:10.1007/BF00265424. ISSN 0258-8900. S2CID 128687255.
  15. ^ Gisbert, Guillem; Delgado-Granados, Hugo; Mangler, Martin; Prytulak, Julie; Espinasa-Pereña, Ramón; Petrone, Chiara Maria (2022). "Evolution of the Popocatépetl Volcanic Complex: constraints on periodic edifice construction and destruction by sector collapse". Journal of the Geological Society. 179 (3). doi:10.1144/jgs2021-022. S2CID 244445941.
  16. ^ Vallance, James W.; Scott, Kevin M. (1997). "The Osceola Mudflow from Mount Rainier: Sedimentology and hazard implications of a huge clay-rich debris flow" (PDF). GSA Bulletin. 109 (2): 143–163. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1997)109<0143:TOMFMR>2.3.CO;2.
  17. ^ Clague, David A.; Moore, James G. (2002). "The proximal part of the giant submarine Wailau landslide, Molokai, Hawaii". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 113 (1–2): 249–287. doi:10.1016/S0377-0273(01)00261-X.
  18. ^ "Koolau: General Information". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2023-04-07.
  19. ^ Friele, Pierre A.; Ekes, C.; Hickin, E.J. (1999). "Evolution of Cheekye fan, Squamish, British Columbia: Holocene sedimentation and implications for hazard assessment". Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences. 36 (12). Natural Resources Canada: 2023. doi:10.1139/e99-090.
  20. ^ Guthrie, R. H.; Friele, P.; Allstadt, K.; Roberts, N.; Evans, S. G.; Delaney, K. B.; Roche, D.; Clague, J. J.; Jakob, M. (2012). "The 6 August 2010 Mount Meager rock slide-debris flow, Coast Mountains, British Columbia: characteristics, dynamics, and implications for hazard and risk assessment". Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences. 12 (5). Copernicus Publications: 1277–1294. Bibcode:2012NHESS..12.1277G. doi:10.5194/nhess-12-1277-2012. ISSN 1561-8633.
  21. ^ "Large Landslide in Uganda". NASA Earth Observatory. 13 March 2010. Retrieved 2023-04-08.
  22. ^ a b Paris, Raphaël (2015), "Source mechanisms of volcanic tsunamis", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 373 (2053), Royal Society Publishing, Bibcode:2015RSPTA.37340380P, doi:10.1098/rsta.2014.0380, PMID 26392617, S2CID 43187708
  23. ^ "How do landslides cause tsunamis?". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 2023-03-27.
  24. ^ Siebert, Lee; Reid, Mark E.; Vallance, James W.; Pierson, Thomas C. (2019). "When Volcanoes Fall Down—Catastrophic Collapse and Debris Avalanches" (PDF). U.S. Geological Survey. Fact Sheet 2019–3023. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-03-06. Retrieved 2021-02-07.
  25. ^ Paris, Raphaël; Switzer, Adam D.; Belousova, Marina; Belousov, Alexander; Ontowirjo, Budianto; Whelley, Patrick L.; Ulvrova, Martina (2014). "Volcanic tsunami: a review of source mechanisms, past events and hazards in Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Philippines, Papua New Guinea)" (PDF). Natural Hazards. 70: 447–440. doi:10.1007/s11069-013-0822-8. S2CID 73610567.
  26. ^ "NCEI Global Historical Hazard Database". www.ngdc.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2021-02-06.
  27. ^ "Landslide: Devastator Glacier BC, Jul 22 1975". Natural Resources Canada. 2009-12-01. Retrieved 2023-04-14.
  28. ^ Simpson, K.A.; Stasiuk, M.; Shimamura, K.; Clague, J.J.; Friele, P. (2006). "Evidence for catastrophic volcanic debris flows in Pemberton Valley, British Columbia". Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences. 43 (6). NRC Research Press: 688. doi:10.1139/e06-026. ISSN 0008-4077.
  29. ^ Keeley, J. (2010). "Volcanogenic Tsunamis". Oregon State University. Retrieved 2021-04-27.
  30. ^ Permadi, Agie (26 December 2018). "Longsoran yang Sebabkan Tsunami Selat Sunda Seluas 64 Hektar". Kompas (in Indonesian). Archived from the original on 11 January 2019. Retrieved 11 January 2019.
  31. ^ "Number of injured in Indonesia tsunami surges to over 14,000 — Asean Plus | the Star Online". Archived from the original on 18 April 2019. Retrieved 13 April 2023.
  32. ^ Marten, Lisa; Zhou, Naaman (24 December 2018). "Indonedia tsunami caused by collapse of volcano". The Guardian. Retrieved 13 April 2023.
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