1641 – A Treaty of Offensive and Defensive Alliance was signed by Portugal and the Dutch Republic on July 12. The treaty had no effect in the Portuguese colonies under Dutch rule since it was not respected by both parties.
In England, the growing conflict between King Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland and the Long Parliament results in the outbreak of the English Civil War (1642–1649) between factions that would eventually be known as the Royalists and the Roundheads (who supported Parliament). The Parliament eventually emerged victorious. The captive King was tried (January 19 – January 27, 1649) and then executed by decapitation (January 30, 1649). The monarchy was then abolished and briefly replaced by the Commonwealth of England (1649 -1653).
1643 – Also in the context of England's religious turmoil, the English Parliament called upon "learned, godly and judicious Divines" to meet at Westminster Abbey to provide advice on issues of worship, doctrine, government and discipline of the Church of England. The work of the Westminster Assembly eventually produced the Westminster Confession of Faith, completed in 1646. This Calvinist confession became and would remain the 'subordinate standard' of doctrine in the Church of Scotland, becoming influential within Presbyterian churches worldwide.
China, in 1644: The invading Manchu army, with the help of Ming general Wu Sangui, captured Beijing, thus beginning the Qing Dynasty (also known as the Manchu Dynasty), which would be the last imperial dynasty of China.
A series of treaties, known collectively as the Peace of Westphalia (October 24, 1648) put an end to two wars, both related to the Reformation:
