Canada: Difference between revisions

Canada
Canada
	Flag Coat of arms
	Motto: A mari usque ad mare (Latin); "From Sea to Sea"
	Anthem: "O Canada" Royal anthem: "God Save the King"
Capital	Ottawa; 45°24′N 75°40′W / 45.400°N 75.667°W
Largest city	Toronto
Official languages	English; French;
Demonym(s)	Canadian
Government	Federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy
• Monarch	Charles III
• Governor General	Mary Simon
• Prime Minister	Justin Trudeau
Legislature	Parliament
• Upper house	Senate
• Lower house	House of Commons
Independence from the United Kingdom
• Confederation	July 1, 1867
• Statute of Westminster, 1931	December 11, 1931
• Patriation	April 17, 1982
Area
• Total area	9,984,670 km2 (3,855,100 sq mi) (2nd)
• Water (%)	11.76 (2015)
• Total land area	9,093,507 km2 (3,511,023 sq mi)
Population
• 2024 Q3 estimate	41,288,599 (36th)
• 2021 census	36,991,981
• Density	4.2/km2 (10.9/sq mi) (236th)
GDP (PPP)	2024 estimate
• Total	$2.582 trillion (16th)
• Per capita	$62,766 (30th)
GDP (nominal)	2024 estimate
• Total	$2.215 trillion (9th)
• Per capita	$53,834 (19th)
Gini (2024)	29.2; low inequality
HDI (2022)	0.935; very high (18th)
Currency	Canadian dollar ($) (CAD)
Time zone	UTC−3.5 to −8
• Summer (DST)	UTC−2.5 to −7
Internet TLD	.ca

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Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, making it the world's second-largest country by total area, with the world's longest coastline. Its border with the United States is the world's longest international land border. The country is characterized by a wide range of both meteorologic and geological regions. With a population of just over 41 million people, it has widely varying population densities, with the majority residing in urban areas and large areas of the country being sparsely populated. Canada's capital is Ottawa and its three largest metropolitan areas are Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver.

Indigenous peoples have continuously inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years. Beginning in the 16th century, British and French expeditions explored and later settled along the Atlantic coast. As a consequence of various armed conflicts, France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. This began an accretion of provinces and territories resulting in the displacement of Indigenous populations, and a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom. This increased sovereignty was highlighted by the Statute of Westminster, 1931, and culminating in the Canada Act 1982, which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom.

Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy in the Westminster tradition. The country's head of government is the prime minister, who holds office by virtue of their ability to command the confidence of the elected House of Commons and is appointed by the governor general, representing the monarch of Canada, the ceremonial head of state. The country is a Commonwealth realm and is officially bilingual (English and French) in the federal jurisdiction. It is very highly ranked in international measurements of government transparency, quality of life, economic competitiveness, innovation, education and human rights. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration. Canada's long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its history, economy, and culture.

A developed country, Canada has a high nominal per capita income globally and its advanced economy ranks among the largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources and well-developed international trade networks. Recognized as a middle power, Canada's strong support for multilateralism and internationalism has been closely related to its foreign relations policies of peacekeeping and aid for developing countries. Canada is part of multiple international organizations and forums.

Etymology

While a variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological origins of Canada, the name is now accepted as coming from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word kanata, meaning "village" or "settlement".^[8] In 1535, Indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona.^[9] Cartier later used the word Canada to refer not only to that particular village but to the entire area subject to Donnacona (the chief at Stadacona);^[9] by 1545, European books and maps had begun referring to this small region along the Saint Lawrence River as Canada.^[9]

From the 16th to the early 18th century, Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the Saint Lawrence River.^[10] Following the British conquest of New France, this area was known as the British Province of Quebec from 1763 to 1791.^[11] In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada. These two colonies were collectively named the Canadas until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841.^[12]

Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the legal name for the new country at the London Conference and the word dominion was conferred as the country's title.^[13] By the 1950s, the term Dominion of Canada was no longer used by the United Kingdom, which considered Canada a "realm of the Commonwealth".^[14]

The Canada Act 1982, which brought the Constitution of Canada fully under Canadian control, referred only to Canada. Later that year, the name of the national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day.^[15]

History

Indigenous peoples

The first inhabitants of North America are generally hypothesized to have migrated from Siberia by way of the Bering land bridge and arrived at least 14,000 years ago.^[16] The Paleo-Indian archeological sites at Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are two of the oldest sites of human habitation in Canada.^[17] The characteristics of Indigenous societies included permanent settlements, agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading networks.^[18] Some of these cultures had collapsed by the time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries and have only been discovered through archeological investigations.^[19] Indigenous peoples in present-day Canada include the First Nations, Inuit, and Métis,^[20] the last being of mixed descent who originated in the mid-17th century when First Nations people married European settlers and subsequently developed their own identity.^[20]

The Indigenous population at the time of the first European settlements is estimated to have been between 200,000^[22] and two million,^[23] with a figure of 500,000 accepted by Canada's Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples.^[24] As a consequence of European colonization, the Indigenous population declined by forty to eighty percent.^[25] The decline is attributed to several causes, including the transfer of European diseases, to which they had no natural immunity,^[26] conflicts over the fur trade, conflicts with the colonial authorities and settlers, and the loss of Indigenous lands to settlers and the subsequent collapse of several nations' self-sufficiency.^[27]

Although not without conflict, European Canadians' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful.^[28] First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada, particularly for their role in assisting European coureurs des bois and voyageurs in their explorations of the continent during the North American fur trade.^[29] These early European interactions with First Nations would change from friendship and peace treaties to the dispossession of Indigenous lands through treaties.^[30] From the late 18th century, European Canadians forced Indigenous peoples to assimilate into a western Canadian society.^[31] Settler colonialism reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.^[32] A period of redress began with the formation of a reconciliation commission by the Government of Canada in 2008.^[33] This included acknowledgment of cultural genocide,^[34] settlement agreements,^[33] and betterment of racial discrimination issues, such as addressing the plight of missing and murdered Indigenous women.^[35]

European colonization

It is believed that the first documented European to explore the east coast of Canada was Norse explorer Leif Erikson.^[37] In approximately 1000 AD, the Norse built a small short-lived encampment that was occupied sporadically for perhaps 20 years at L'Anse aux Meadows on the northern tip of Newfoundland.^[38] No further European exploration occurred until 1497, when seafarer John Cabot explored and claimed Canada's Atlantic coast in the name of Henry VII of England.^[39] In 1534, French explorer Jacques Cartier explored the Gulf of Saint Lawrence where, on July 24, he planted a 10-metre (33 ft) cross bearing the words, "long live the King of France", and took possession of the territory New France in the name of King Francis I.^[40] The early 16th century saw European mariners with navigational techniques pioneered by the Basque and Portuguese establish seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast.^[41] In general, early settlements during the Age of Discovery appear to have been short-lived due to a combination of the harsh climate, problems with navigating trade routes and competing outputs in Scandinavia.^[42]

In 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, by the royal prerogative of Queen Elizabeth I, founded St John's, Newfoundland, as the first North American English seasonal camp.^[43] In 1600, the French established their first seasonal trading post at Tadoussac along the Saint Lawrence.^[38] French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent year-round European settlements at Port Royal (in 1605) and Quebec City (in 1608).^[44] Among the colonists of New France, Canadiens extensively settled the Saint Lawrence River valley and Acadians settled the present-day Maritimes, while fur traders and Catholic missionaries explored the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, and the Mississippi watershed to Louisiana.^[45] The Beaver Wars broke out in the mid-17th century over control of the North American fur trade.^[46]

The English established additional settlements in Newfoundland in 1610 along with settlements in the Thirteen Colonies to the south.^[47] A series of four wars erupted in colonial North America between 1689 and 1763; the later wars of the period constituted the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War.^[48] Mainland Nova Scotia came under British rule with the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht and Canada and most of New France came under British rule in 1763 after the Seven Years' War.^[49]

British North America

The Royal Proclamation of 1763 established First Nation treaty rights, created the Province of Quebec out of New France, and annexed Cape Breton Island to Nova Scotia.^[15] St John's Island (now Prince Edward Island) became a separate colony in 1769.^[51] To avert conflict in Quebec, the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act 1774, expanding Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley.^[52] More importantly, the Quebec Act afforded Quebec special autonomy and rights of self-administration at a time when the Thirteen Colonies were increasingly agitating against British rule.^[53] It re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law there, staving off the growth of an independence movement in contrast to the Thirteen Colonies.^[54] The Proclamation and the Quebec Act in turn angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, further fuelling anti-British sentiment in the years prior to the American Revolution.^[15]

After the successful American War of Independence, the 1783 Treaty of Paris recognized the independence of the newly formed United States and set the terms of peace, ceding British North American territories south of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi River to the new country.^[55] The American war of independence also caused a large out-migration of Loyalists, the settlers who had fought against American independence. Many moved to Canada, particularly Atlantic Canada, where their arrival changed the demographic distribution of the existing territories. New Brunswick was in turn split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes, which led to the incorporation of Saint John, New Brunswick, as Canada's first city.^[56] To accommodate the influx of English-speaking Loyalists in Central Canada, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province of Canada into French-speaking Lower Canada (later Quebec) and English-speaking Upper Canada (later Ontario), granting each its own elected legislative assembly.^[57]

The Canadas were the main front in the War of 1812 between the United States and the United Kingdom. Peace came in 1815; no boundaries were changed.^[59] Immigration resumed at a higher level, with over 960,000 arrivals from Britain between 1815 and 1850.^[60] New arrivals included refugees escaping the Great Irish Famine as well as Gaelic-speaking Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances.^[61] Infectious diseases killed between 25 and 33 percent of Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891.^[22]

The desire for responsible government resulted in the abortive Rebellions of 1837.^[62] The Durham Report subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into English culture.^[15] The Act of Union 1840 merged the Canadas into a united Province of Canada and responsible government was established for all provinces of British North America east of Lake Superior by 1855.^[63] The signing of the Oregon Treaty by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the Oregon boundary dispute, extending the border westward along the 49th parallel. This paved the way for British colonies on Vancouver Island (1849) and in British Columbia (1858).^[64] The Anglo-Russian Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1825) established the border along the Pacific coast, but, even after the US Alaska Purchase of 1867, disputes continued about the exact demarcation of the Alaska–Yukon and Alaska–BC border.^[65]

Confederation and expansion

Following three constitutional conferences, the British North America Act, 1867 officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, initially with four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.^[67] Canada assumed control of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories, where the Métis' grievances ignited the Red River Rebellion and the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870.^[68] British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had been united in 1866) joined the confederation in 1871 on the promise of a transcontinental railway extending to Victoria in the province within 10 years,^[69] while Prince Edward Island joined in 1873.^[70] In 1898, during the Klondike Gold Rush in the Northwest Territories, Parliament created the Yukon Territory. Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905.^[70] Between 1871 and 1896, almost one quarter of the Canadian population emigrated south to the US.^[71]

To open the West and encourage European immigration, the Government of Canada sponsored the construction of three transcontinental railways (including the Canadian Pacific Railway), passed the Dominion Lands Act to regulate settlement and established the North-West Mounted Police to assert authority over the territory.^[72] This period of westward expansion and nation building resulted in the displacement of many Indigenous peoples of the Canadian Prairies to "Indian reserves",^[73] clearing the way for ethnic European block settlements.^[74] This caused the collapse of the Plains Bison in western Canada and the introduction of European cattle farms and wheat fields dominating the land.^[75] The Indigenous peoples saw widespread famine and disease due to the loss of the bison and their traditional hunting lands.^[76] The federal government did provide emergency relief, on condition of the Indigenous peoples moving to the reserves.^[77] During this time, Canada introduced the Indian Act extending its control over the First Nations to education, government and legal rights.^[78]

Early 20th century

1918 Canadian War bond posters depicting three French women pulling a plow that had been constructed for horses

French version of the poster roughly translates as "They serve France–Everyone can serve; Buy Victory Bonds".

The same poster in English, with subtle differences in text. "They serve France—How can I serve Canada? Buy Victory Bonds".

Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs under the British North America Act, 1867, its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought Canada into the First World War.^[79] Volunteers sent to the Western Front later became part of the Canadian Corps, which played a substantial role in the Battle of Vimy Ridge and other major engagements of the war.^[80] The Conscription Crisis of 1917 erupted when the Unionist Cabinet's proposal to augment the military's dwindling number of active members with conscription was met with vehement objections from French-speaking Quebecers.^[81] In 1919, Canada joined the League of Nations independently of Britain,^[80] and the Statute of Westminster, 1931, affirmed Canada's independence.^[82]

The Great Depression in Canada during the early 1930s saw an economic downturn, leading to hardship across the country.^[83] In response to the downturn, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Saskatchewan introduced many elements of a welfare state (as pioneered by Tommy Douglas) in the 1940s and 1950s.^[84] On the advice of Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, war with Germany was declared effective September 10, 1939, by King George VI, seven days after the United Kingdom. The delay underscored Canada's independence.^[80]

The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939. In all, over a million Canadians served in the armed forces during the Second World War.^[85] Canadian troops played important roles in many key battles of the war, including the failed 1942 Dieppe Raid, the Allied invasion of Italy, the Normandy landings, the Battle of Normandy, and the Battle of the Scheldt in 1944.^[80] Canada provided asylum for the Dutch monarchy while that country was occupied and is credited by the Netherlands for major contributions to its liberation from Nazi Germany.^[86]

The Canadian economy boomed during the war as its industries manufactured military materiel for Canada, Britain, China, and the Soviet Union.^[80] Despite another Conscription Crisis in Quebec in 1944, Canada finished the war with a large army and strong economy.^[87]

Contemporary era

The financial crisis of the Great Depression led the Dominion of Newfoundland to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a Crown colony ruled by a British governor.^[88] After two referendums, Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province.^[89]

Canada's post-war economic growth, combined with the policies of successive Liberal governments, led to the emergence of a new Canadian identity, marked by the adoption of the maple leaf flag in 1965,^[90] the implementation of official bilingualism (English and French) in 1969,^[91] and the institution of official multiculturalism in 1971.^[92] Socially democratic programs were also instituted, such as Medicare, the Canada Pension Plan, and Canada Student Loans; though, provincial governments, particularly Quebec and Alberta, opposed many of these as incursions into their jurisdictions.^[93]

Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the Canada Act 1982, the patriation of Canada's constitution from the United Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.^[95] Canada had established complete sovereignty as an independent country under its own monarchy.^[96] In 1999, Nunavut became Canada's third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government.^[97]

At the same time, Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes through the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, giving birth to a secular nationalist movement.^[98] The radical Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) ignited the October Crisis with a series of bombings and kidnappings in 1970,^[99] and the sovereigntist Parti Québécois was elected in 1976, organizing an unsuccessful referendum on sovereignty-association in 1980. Attempts to accommodate Quebec nationalism constitutionally through the Meech Lake Accord failed in 1990.^[100] This led to the formation of the Bloc Québécois in Quebec and the invigoration of the Reform Party of Canada in the West.^[101] A second referendum followed in 1995, in which sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of 50.6 to 49.4 percent.^[102] In 1997, the Supreme Court ruled unilateral secession by a province would be unconstitutional, and the Clarity Act was passed by Parliament, outlining the terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation.^[100]

In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These included the explosion of Air India Flight 182 in 1985, the largest mass murder in Canadian history;^[103] the École Polytechnique massacre in 1989, a university shooting targeting female students;^[104] and the Oka Crisis of 1990,^[105] the first of a number of violent confrontations between provincial governments and Indigenous groups.^[106] Canada joined the Gulf War in 1990 and was active in several peacekeeping missions in the 1990s, including operations in the Balkans during and after the Yugoslav Wars,^[107] and in Somalia, resulting in an incident that has been described as "the darkest era in the history of the Canadian military".^[108] Canada sent troops to Afghanistan in 2001, resulting in the largest amount of Canadian deaths for any single military mission since the Korean War in the early 1950s.^[109]

In 2011, Canadian forces participated in the NATO-led intervention into the Libyan Civil War^[110] and also became involved in battling the Islamic State insurgency in Iraq in the mid-2010s.^[111] The country celebrated its sesquicentennial in 2017, three years before the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada began on January 27, 2020, with widespread social and economic disruption.^[112] In 2021, the possible graves of hundreds of Indigenous people were discovered near the former sites of Canadian Indian residential schools.^[113] Administered by various Christian churches and funded by the Canadian government from 1828 to 1997, these boarding schools attempted to assimilate Indigenous children into Euro-Canadian culture.^[114]

Geography

By total area (including its waters), Canada is the second-largest country.^[115] By land area alone, Canada ranks fourth, due to having the world's largest area of fresh water lakes.^[116] Stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in the east, along the Arctic Ocean to the north, and to the Pacific Ocean in the west, the country encompasses 9,984,670 km² (3,855,100 sq mi) of territory.^[117] Canada also has vast maritime terrain, with the world's longest coastline of 243,042 kilometres (151,019 mi).^[118] In addition to sharing the world's largest land border with the United States—spanning 8,891 km (5,525 mi)^[a]—Canada shares a land border with Greenland (and hence the Kingdom of Denmark) to the northeast, on Hans Island,^[119] and a maritime boundary with France's overseas collectivity of Saint Pierre and Miquelon to the southeast.^[120] Canada is also home to the world's northernmost settlement, Canadian Forces Station Alert, on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island—latitude 82.5°N—which lies 817 kilometres (508 mi) from the North Pole.^[121] In latitude, Canada's most northerly point of land is Cape Columbia in Nunavut at 83°6′41″N, with its southern extreme at Middle Island in Lake Erie at 41°40′53″N. In longitude, Canada's land extends from Cape Spear, Newfoundland, at 52°37'W, to Mount St. Elias, Yukon Territory, at 141°W.^[122]

Canada can be divided into seven physiographic regions: the Canadian Shield, the interior plains, the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands, the Appalachian region, the Western Cordillera, Hudson Bay Lowlands, and the Arctic Archipelago.^[123] Boreal forests prevail throughout the country, ice is prominent in northern Arctic regions and through the Rocky Mountains, and the relatively flat Canadian Prairies in the southwest facilitate productive agriculture.^[117] The Great Lakes feed the St. Lawrence River (in the southeast) where the lowlands host much of Canada's economic output.^[117] Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes—563 of which are larger than 100 km² (39 sq mi)—containing much of the world's fresh water.^[124] There are also fresh-water glaciers in the Canadian Rockies, the Coast Mountains, and the Arctic Cordillera.^[125] Canada is geologically active, having many earthquakes and potentially active volcanoes.^[126]

Climate

Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary from region to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a continental climate, where daily average temperatures are near −15 °C (5 °F), but can drop below −40 °C (−40 °F) with severe wind chills.^[127] In non-coastal regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in parts of the north snow can persist year-round. Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from 25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 °F), with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding 40 °C (104 °F).^[128]

Much of Northern Canada is covered by ice and permafrost. The future of the permafrost is uncertain because the Arctic has been warming at three times the global average as a result of climate change in Canada.^[129] Canada's annual average temperature over land has risen by 1.7 °C (3.1 °F), with changes ranging from 1.1 to 2.3 °C (2.0 to 4.1 °F) in various regions, since 1948.^[117] The rate of warming has been higher across the North and in the Prairies.^[130] In the southern regions of Canada, air pollution from both Canada and the United States—caused by metal smelting, burning coal to power utilities, and vehicle emissions—has resulted in acid rain, which has severely impacted waterways, forest growth, and agricultural productivity.^[131] Canada is one of the largest greenhouse gas emitters globally,^[132] with emissions increased by 16.5 percent between 1990 and 2022.^[133]

Biodiversity

Canada is divided into 15 terrestrial and five marine ecozones.^[135] These ecozones encompass over 80,000 classified species of Canadian wildlife, with an equal number yet to be formally recognized or discovered.^[136] Although Canada has a low percentage of endemic species compared to other countries,^[137] due to human activities, invasive species, and environmental issues in the country, there are currently more than 800 species at risk of being lost.^[138] About 65 percent of Canada's resident species are considered "Secure".^[139] Over half of Canada's landscape is intact and relatively free of human development.^[140] The boreal forest of Canada is considered to be the largest intact forest on Earth, with approximately 3,000,000 km² (1,200,000 sq mi) undisturbed by roads, cities or industry.^[141] Since the end of the last glacial period, Canada has consisted of eight distinct forest regions.^[142]

Approximately 12.1 percent of the nation's landmass and freshwater are conservation areas, including 11.4 percent designated as protected areas.^[143] Approximately 13.8 percent of its territorial waters are conserved, including 8.9 percent designated as protected areas.^[143] Canada's first National Park, Banff National Park established in 1885 spans 6,641 square kilometres (2,564 sq mi).^[144] Canada's oldest provincial park, Algonquin Provincial Park, established in 1893, covers an area of 7,653.45 square kilometres (2,955.01 sq mi).^[145] Lake Superior National Marine Conservation Area is the world's largest freshwater protected area, spanning roughly 10,000 square kilometres (3,900 sq mi).^[146] Canada's largest national wildlife region is the Scott Islands Marine National Wildlife Area which spans 11,570.65 square kilometres (4,467.45 sq mi).^[147]

Government and politics

Canada is described as a "full democracy",^[148] with a tradition of liberalism,^[149] and an egalitarian,^[150] moderate political ideology.^[151] An emphasis on social justice has been a distinguishing element of Canada's political culture.^[152] Peace, order, and good government, alongside an Implied Bill of Rights, are founding principles of Canadian federalism.^[153]

At the federal level, Canada has been dominated by two relatively centrist parties practising "brokerage politics":^[b] the centre-left leaning Liberal Party of Canada^[156] and the centre-right leaning Conservative Party of Canada (or its predecessors).^[157] The historically predominant Liberals position themselves at the centre of the political scale.^[157] Five parties had representatives elected to the Parliament in the 2021 election—the Liberals, who formed a minority government; the Conservatives, who became the Official Opposition; the New Democratic Party (occupying the left^[158]); the Bloc Québécois; and the Green Party.^[159] Far-right and far-left politics have never been a prominent force in Canadian society.^[160]

Canada has a parliamentary system within the context of a constitutional monarchy—the monarchy of Canada being the foundation of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches.^[161] The reigning monarch is also monarch of 14 other sovereign Commonwealth countries^[162] and Canada's 10 provinces. The monarch appoints a representative, the governor general, on the advice of the prime minister, to carry out most of their ceremonial royal duties.^[163]

Charles III, King of Canada

Mary Simon, Governor General of Canada

Justin Trudeau, Prime Minister of Canada

The monarchy is the source of sovereignty and authority in Canada.^[164] However, while the governor general or monarch may exercise their power without ministerial advice in rare crisis situations,^[165] the use of the executive powers (or royal prerogative) is otherwise directed by the Cabinet, a committee of ministers of the Crown responsible to the elected House of Commons and chosen and headed by the prime minister,^[166] the head of government. To ensure the stability of government, the governor general will usually appoint as prime minister the individual who is the current leader of the political party that can obtain the confidence of a majority of members in the House.^[167] The Prime Minister's Office (PMO) is one of the most powerful institutions in government, initiating most legislation for parliamentary approval and selecting for appointment by the Crown the governor general, lieutenant governors, senators, federal court judges, and heads of Crown corporations and government agencies.^[165] The leader of the party with the second-most seats usually becomes the leader of the Official Opposition and is part of an adversarial parliamentary system intended to keep the government in check.^[168]

The Parliament of Canada passes all federal statute laws. It comprises the monarch, the House of Commons, and the Senate. While Canada inherited the British concept of parliamentary supremacy, this was later, with the enactment of the Constitution Act, 1982, all but completely superseded by the American notion of the supremacy of the law.^[170]

Each of the 338 members of Parliament in the House of Commons is elected by simple plurality in an electoral district or riding. The Constitution Act, 1982, requires that no more than five years pass between elections, although the Canada Elections Act limits this to four years with a "fixed" election date in October; general elections still must be called by the governor general and can be triggered by either the advice of the prime minister or a lost confidence vote in the House.^[171] The 105 members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, serve until age 75.^[172]

Canadian federalism divides government responsibilities between the federal government and the 10 provinces. Provincial legislatures are unicameral and operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the House of Commons.^[173] Canada's three territories also have legislatures, but these are not sovereign, have fewer constitutional responsibilities than the provinces,^[174] and differ structurally from their provincial counterparts.^[175]

Law

The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law of the country and consists of written text and unwritten conventions.^[176] The Constitution Act, 1867 (known as the British North America Act, 1867 prior to 1982), affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments.^[177] The Statute of Westminster, 1931, granted full autonomy, and the Constitution Act, 1982, ended all legislative ties to Britain, as well as adding a constitutional amending formula and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.^[178] The Charter guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be overridden by any government; a notwithstanding clause allows Parliament and the provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter for a period of five years.^[179]

Canada's judiciary interprets laws and has the power to strike down acts of Parliament that violate the constitution. The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court, final arbiter, and has been led since 2017 by Richard Wagner, the Chief Justice of Canada.^[180] The governor general appoints the court's nine members on the advice of the prime minister and minister of justice.^[181] The federal Cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts in the provincial and territorial jurisdictions.^[182]

Common law prevails everywhere except Quebec, where civil law predominates.^[183] Criminal law is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada.^[184] Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is officially a provincial responsibility, conducted by provincial and municipal police forces.^[185] In most rural and some urban areas, policing responsibilities are contracted to the federal Royal Canadian Mounted Police.^[186]

Canadian Aboriginal law provides certain constitutionally recognized rights to land and traditional practices for Indigenous groups in Canada.^[187] Various treaties and case laws were established to mediate relations between Europeans and many Indigenous peoples.^[188] The role of Aboriginal law and the rights they support were reaffirmed by section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982.^[188] These rights may include provision of services, such as healthcare through the Indian Health Transfer Policy, and exemption from taxation.^[189]

Provinces and territories

Canada is a federation composed of 10 federated states, called provinces, and three federal territories. These may be grouped into four main regions: Western Canada, Central Canada, Atlantic Canada, and Northern Canada (Eastern Canada refers to Central Canada and Atlantic Canada together).^[191] Provinces and territories have responsibility for social programs such as healthcare, education, and social programs,^[192] as well as administration of justice (but not criminal law). Although the provinces collect more revenue than the federal government, equalization payments are made by the federal government to ensure reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.^[193]

The major difference between a Canadian province and a territory is that provinces receive their sovereignty from the Crown^[194] and power and authority from the Constitution Act, 1867, whereas territorial governments have powers delegated to them by the Parliament of Canada^[195] and the commissioners represent the King in his federal Council,^[196] rather than the monarch directly. The powers flowing from the Constitution Act, 1867, are divided between the federal government and the provincial governments to exercise exclusively^[197] and any changes to that arrangement require a constitutional amendment, while changes to the roles and powers of the territories may be performed unilaterally by the Parliament of Canada.^[198]

Foreign relations

Canada is recognized as a middle power for its role in global affairs with a tendency to pursue multilateral and international solutions.^[200] Canada is known for its commitment to international peace and security, as well as being a mediator in conflicts,^[201] and for providing aid to developing countries.^[202]

Canada and the United States have a long and complex relationship;^[203] they are close allies, co-operating regularly on military campaigns and humanitarian efforts.^[204] Canada also maintains historic and traditional ties to the United Kingdom and to France,^[205] along with both countries' former colonies through its membership in the Commonwealth of Nations and the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie.^[206] Canada is noted for having a positive relationship with the Netherlands, owing, in part, to its contribution to the Dutch liberation during the Second World War.^[86] Canada has diplomatic and consular offices in over 270 locations in approximately 180 foreign countries.^[199]

Canada is a member of various international organizations and forums.^[207] Canada was a founding member of the United Nations in 1945 and formed the North American Aerospace Defense Command together with the United States in 1958.^[208] The country has membership in the World Trade Organization, the Five Eyes, the G7 and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).^[209] The country was a founding member the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC) in 1989 and joined the Organization of American States (OAS) in 1990.^[210] Canada ratified the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, and seven principal UN human rights conventions and covenants since then.^[211]

Military and peacekeeping

Alongside many domestic obligations, more than 3,000 Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) personnel are deployed in multiple foreign military operations.^[213] The Canadian unified forces comprise the Royal Canadian Navy, Canadian Army, and Royal Canadian Air Force. The nation employs a professional, volunteer force of approximately 68,000 active personnel and 27,000 reserve personnel—increasing to 71,500 and 30,000 respectively under "Strong, Secure, Engaged"^[214]—with a sub-component of approximately 5,000 Canadian Rangers.^[215]^[c] In 2022, Canada's military expenditure totalled approximately $26.9 billion, or around 1.2 percent of the country's gross domestic product (GDP) – placing it 14th for military expenditure by country.^[217]

Canada's role in developing peacekeeping and its participation in major peacekeeping initiatives during the 20th century has played a major role in its positive global image.^[218] Peacekeeping is deeply embedded in Canadian culture and a distinguishing feature that Canadians feel sets their foreign policy apart from the United States.^[219] Canada has long been reluctant to participate in military operations that are not sanctioned by the United Nations,^[220] such as the Vietnam War or the 2003 invasion of Iraq.^[221] Since the 21st century, Canadian direct participation in UN peacekeeping efforts has greatly declined.^[222] The large decrease was a result of Canada directing its participation to UN-sanctioned military operations through NATO, rather than directly through the UN.^[223] The change to participation via NATO has resulted in a shift towards more militarized and deadly missions rather than traditional peacekeeping duties.^[224]

Economy

Canada has a highly developed mixed-market economy,^[226] with the world's ninth-largest economy as of 2023^[update], and a nominal GDP of approximately US$2.221 trillion.^[227] It is one of the world's largest trading nations, with a highly globalized economy.^[228] In 2021, Canadian trade in goods and services reached $2.016 trillion.^[229] Canada's exports totalled over $637 billion, while its imported goods were worth over $631 billion, of which approximately $391 billion originated from the United States.^[229] In 2018, Canada had a trade deficit in goods of $22 billion and a trade deficit in services of $25 billion.^[229] The Toronto Stock Exchange is the ninth-largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalization, listing over 1,500 companies with a combined market capitalization of over US$2 trillion.^[230]

The Bank of Canada is the central bank of the country.^[231] The minister of finance and minister of innovation, science, and industry use data from Statistics Canada to enable financial planning and develop economic policy.^[232] Canada has a strong cooperative banking sector, with the world's highest per-capita membership in credit unions.^[233] It ranks low in the Corruption Perceptions Index (14th in 2023)^[234] and "is widely regarded as among the least corrupt countries of the world".^[235] It ranks high in the Global Competitiveness Report (19th in 2024)^[236] and Global Innovation Index (14th in 2024).^[237] Canada's economy ranks above most Western nations on the Heritage Foundation's Index of Economic Freedom^[238] and experiences a relatively low level of income disparity.^[239] The country's average household disposable income per capita is "well above" the OECD average.^[240] Canada ranks among the lowest of the most developed countries for housing affordability^[241] and foreign direct investment.^[242]

Since the early 20th century, the growth of Canada's manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy to an urbanized, industrial one.^[243] The Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three-quarters of the country's workforce.^[244] Canada has an unusually important primary sector, of which the forestry and petroleum industries are the most prominent components.^[245] Many towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, are sustained by nearby mines or sources of timber.^[246]

Canada's economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since the Second World War.^[248] The Canada – United States Free Trade Agreement (FTA) of 1988 eliminated tariffs between the two countries, while the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) expanded the free-trade zone to include Mexico in 1994 (later replaced by the Canada–United States–Mexico Agreement).^[249] As of 2023, Canada is a signatory to 15 free trade agreements with 51 different countries.^[247]

Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of energy.^[250] Atlantic Canada possess vast offshore deposits of natural gas,^[251] and Alberta hosts the fourth-largest oil reserves in the world.^[252] The vast Athabasca oil sands and other oil reserves give Canada 13 percent of global oil reserves, constituting the world's third- or fourth-largest.^[253] Canada is additionally one of the world's largest suppliers of agricultural products; the Canadian Prairies region is one of the most important global producers of wheat, canola, and other grains.^[254] The country is a leading exporter of zinc, uranium, gold, nickel, platinoids, aluminum, steel, iron ore, coking coal, lead, copper, molybdenum, cobalt, and cadmium.^[255] Canada has a sizeable manufacturing sector centred in southern Ontario and Quebec, with automobiles and aeronautics representing particularly important industries.^[256] The fishing industry is also a key contributor to the economy.^[257]

Science and technology

In 2020, Canada spent approximately $41.9 billion on domestic research and development, with supplementary estimates for 2022 at $43.2 billion.^[258] As of 2023^[update], the country has produced 15 Nobel laureates in physics, chemistry, and medicine.^[259] The country ranks seventh in the worldwide share of articles published in scientific journals, according to the Nature Index,^[260] and is home to the headquarters of a number of global technology firms.^[261] Canada has one of the highest levels of Internet access in the world, with over 33 million users, equivalent to around 94 percent of its total population.^[262]

Canada's developments in science and technology include the creation of the modern alkaline battery,^[264] the discovery of insulin,^[265] the development of the polio vaccine,^[266] and discoveries about the interior structure of the atomic nucleus.^[267] Other major Canadian scientific contributions include the artificial cardiac pacemaker, mapping the visual cortex,^[268] the development of the electron microscope,^[269] plate tectonics, deep learning, multi-touch technology, and the identification of the first black hole, Cygnus X-1.^[270] Canada has a long history of discovery in genetics, which include stem cells, site-directed mutagenesis, T-cell receptor, and the identification of the genes that cause Fanconi anemia, cystic fibrosis, and early-onset Alzheimer's disease, among numerous other diseases.^[271]

The Canadian Space Agency operates a highly active space program, conducting deep-space, planetary, and aviation research and developing rockets and satellites.^[272] Canada was the third country to design and construct a satellite when in 1962 Alouette 1 was launched.^[273] Canada is a participant in the International Space Station (ISS), and is a pioneer in space robotics, having constructed the Canadarm, Canadarm2, Canadarm3 and Dextre robotic manipulators for the ISS and NASA's Space Shuttle.^[274] Since the 1960s, Canada's aerospace industry has designed and built numerous marques of satellite, including Radarsat-1 and 2, ISIS, and MOST.^[275] Canada has also produced one of the world's most successful and widely used sounding rockets, the Black Brant.^[276]

Demographics

The 2021 Canadian census enumerated a total population of 36,991,981, an increase of around 5.2 percent over the 2016 figure.^[278] It is estimated that Canada's population surpassed 40,000,000 in 2023.^[279] The main drivers of population growth are immigration and, to a lesser extent, natural growth.^[280] Canada has one of the highest per-capita immigration rates in the world,^[281] driven mainly by economic policy and family reunification.^[282] A record 405,000 immigrants were admitted in 2021.^[283] Canada leads the world in refugee resettlement; it resettled more than 47,600 in 2022.^[284] New immigrants settle mostly in major urban areas, such as Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver.^[285]

Canada's population density, at 4.2 inhabitants per square kilometre (11/sq mi), is among the lowest in the world,^[278] with approximately 95 percent of the population is found south of the 55th parallel north.^[286] About 80 percent of the population lives within 150 kilometres (93 mi) of the border with the contiguous United States.^[287] Canada is highly urbanized, with over 80 percent of the population living in urban centres.^[288] The majority of Canadians (over 70 percent ) live below the 49th parallel, with 50 percent of Canadians living south of 45°42′ (45.7 degrees) north.^[289] The most densely populated part of the country is the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor in Southern Quebec and Southern Ontario along the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River.^[290]

The majority of Canadians (81.1 percent) live in family households, 12.1 percent report living alone, and 6.8 percent live with other relatives or unrelated persons.^[291] Fifty-one percent of households are couples with or without children, 8.7 percent are single-parent households, 2.9 percent are multigenerational households, and 29.3 percent are single-person households.^[291]

v t e Largest metropolitan areas in Canada 2021 Canadian census^[292]
Rank	Name	Province	Pop.	Rank	Name	Province	Pop.
1	Toronto	Ontario	6,202,225	11	London	Ontario	543,551
2	Montreal	Quebec	4,291,732	12	Halifax	Nova Scotia	465,703
3	Vancouver	British Columbia	2,642,825	13	Niagara Region	Ontario	433,604
4	Ottawa–Gatineau	Ontario–Quebec	1,488,307	14	Windsor	Ontario	422,630
5	Calgary	Alberta	1,481,806	15	Oshawa	Ontario	415,311
6	Edmonton	Alberta	1,418,118	16	Victoria	British Columbia	397,237
7	Quebec City	Quebec	839,311	17	Saskatoon	Saskatchewan	317,480
8	Winnipeg	Manitoba	834,678	18	Regina	Saskatchewan	249,217
9	Hamilton	Ontario	785,184	19	Sherbrooke	Quebec	227,398
10	Waterloo Region	Ontario	575,847	20	Kelowna	British Columbia	222,162

Ethnicity

Respondents in the 2021 Canadian census self-reported over 450 "ethnic or cultural origins".^[293] The major panethnic groups chosen were: European (52.5 percent), North American (22.9 percent), Asian (19.3 percent), North American Indigenous (6.1 percent), African (3.8 percent), Latin, Central and South American (2.5 percent), Caribbean (2.1 percent), Oceanian (0.3 percent), and other (6 percent).^[293] Over 60 percent of Canadians reported a single origin, and 36 percent reported having multiple ethnic origins, thus the overall total is greater than 100 percent.^[293]

The country's ten largest self-reported ethnic or cultural origins in 2021 were Canadian^[d] (accounting for 15.6 percent of the population), followed by English (14.7 percent), Irish (12.1 percent), Scottish (12.1 percent), French (11.0 percent), German (8.1 percent), Chinese (4.7 percent), Italian (4.3 percent), Indian (3.7 percent), and Ukrainian (3.5 percent).^[297]

Of the 36.3 million people enumerated in 2021, approximately 24.5 million reported being "White", representing 67.4 percent of the population.^[298] The Indigenous population representing 5 percent or 1.8 million individuals, grew by 9.4 percent compared to the non-Indigenous population, which grew by 5.3 percent from 2016 to 2021.^[298] One out of every four Canadians or 26.5 percent of the population belonged to a non-White and non-Indigenous visible minority,^[299]^[e] the largest of which in 2021 were South Asian (2.6 million people; 7.1 percent), Chinese (1.7 million; 4.7 percent), and Black (1.5 million; 4.3 percent).^[301]

Between 2011 and 2016, the visible minority population rose by 18.4 percent.^[302] In 1961, about 300,000 people, less than two percent of Canada's population, were members of visible minority groups.^[303] The 2021 census indicated that 8.3 million people, or almost one-quarter (23.0 percent) of the population, reported themselves as being or having been a landed immigrant or permanent resident in Canada—above the 1921 census previous record of 22.3 percent.^[304] In 2021, India, China, and the Philippines were the top three countries of origin for immigrants moving to Canada.^[305]

Languages

A multitude of languages are used by Canadians, with English and French (the official languages) being the mother tongues of approximately 54 percent and 19 percent of Canadians, respectively.^[291] Canada's official bilingualism policies give citizens the right to receive federal government services in either English or French with official-language minorities guaranteed their own schools in all provinces and territories.^[307]

Quebec's 1974 Official Language Act established French as the only official language of the province.^[308] Although more than 82 percent of French-speaking Canadians live in Quebec, there are substantial Francophone populations in New Brunswick, Alberta, and Manitoba, with Ontario having the largest French-speaking population outside Quebec.^[309] New Brunswick, the only officially bilingual province, has an Acadian French minority constituting 33 percent of the population.^[310] There are also clusters of Acadians in southwestern Nova Scotia, on Cape Breton Island, and in central and western Prince Edward Island.^[311]

Other provinces have no official languages as such, but French is used as a language of instruction, in courts, and for other government services, in addition to English. Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec allow for both English and French to be spoken in the provincial legislatures and laws are enacted in both languages. In Ontario, French has some legal status, but is not fully co-official.^[312] There are 11 Indigenous language groups, composed of more than 65 distinct languages and dialects.^[313] Several Indigenous languages have official status in the Northwest Territories.^[314] Inuktitut is the majority language in Nunavut and is one of three official languages in the territory.^[315]

As of the 2021 census, just over 7.8 million Canadians listed a non-official language as their first language. Some of the most common non-official first languages include Mandarin (679,255 first-language speakers), Punjabi (666,585), Cantonese (553,380), Spanish (538,870), Arabic (508,410), Tagalog (461,150), Italian (319,505), German (272,865), and Tamil (237,890).^[291] The country is also home to many sign languages, some of which are Indigenous.^[316] American Sign Language (ASL) is used across the country due to the prevalence of ASL in primary and secondary schools.^[317] Quebec Sign Language (LSQ) is used primarily in Quebec.^[318]

Religion

Canada is religiously diverse, encompassing a wide range of beliefs and customs.^[320] The Constitution of Canada refers to God; however, Canada has no official church and the government is officially committed to religious pluralism.^[321] Freedom of religion in Canada is a constitutionally protected right.^[322]

Rates of religious adherence have steadily decreased since the 1970s.^[320] With Christianity in decline after having once been central and integral to Canadian culture and daily life,^[323] Canada has become a post-Christian, secular state.^[324] Although the majority of Canadians consider religion to be unimportant in their daily lives,^[325] they still believe in God.^[326] The practice of religion is generally considered a private matter.^[327]

According to the 2021 census, Christianity is the largest religion in Canada, with Roman Catholics representing 29.9 percent of the population having the most adherents. Christians overall representing 53.3 percent of the population,^[f] are followed by people reporting irreligion or having no religion at 34.6 percent.^[330] Other faiths include Islam (4.9 percent), Hinduism (2.3 percent), Sikhism (2.1 percent), Buddhism (1.0 percent), Judaism (0.9 percent), and Indigenous spirituality (0.2 percent).^[331] Canada has the second-largest national Sikh population, behind India.^[332]

Health

Healthcare in Canada is delivered through the provincial and territorial systems of publicly funded health care, informally called Medicare.^[333] It is guided by the provisions of the Canada Health Act of 1984^[334] and is universal.^[335] Universal access to publicly funded health services "is often considered by Canadians as a fundamental value that ensures national healthcare insurance for everyone wherever they live in the country".^[336] Around 30 percent of Canadians' healthcare is paid for through the private sector.^[337] This mostly pays for services not covered or partially covered by Medicare, such as prescription drugs, dentistry and optometry.^[337] Approximately 65 to 75 percent of Canadians have some form of supplementary health insurance; many receive it through their employers or access secondary social service programs.^[338]

In common with many other developed countries, Canada is experiencing an increase in healthcare expenditures due to a demographic shift toward an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2021, the average age in Canada was 41.9 years.^[291] Life expectancy is 81.1 years.^[339] A 2016 report by the chief public health officer found that 88 percent of Canadians, one of the highest proportions of the population among G7 countries, indicated that they "had good or very good health".^[340] Eighty percent of Canadian adults self-report having at least one major risk factor for chronic disease: smoking, physical inactivity, unhealthy eating or excessive alcohol use.^[341] Canada has one of the highest rates of adult obesity among OECD countries, contributing to approximately 2.7 million cases of diabetes.^[341] Four chronic diseases—cancer (leading cause of death), cardiovascular diseases, respiratory diseases, and diabetes—account for 65 percent of deaths in Canada.^[342]

In 2021, the Canadian Institute for Health Information reported that healthcare spending reached $308 billion, or 12.7 percent of Canada's GDP for that year.^[343] In 2022, Canada's per-capita spending on health expenditures ranked 12th among health-care systems in the OECD.^[344] Canada has performed close to, or above the average on the majority of OECD health indicators since the early 2000s, ranking above the average on OECD indicators for wait-times and access to care, with average scores for quality of care and use of resources.^[345] The Commonwealth Fund's 2021 report comparing the healthcare systems of the 11 most developed countries ranked Canada second-to-last.^[346] Identified weaknesses were comparatively higher infant mortality rate, the prevalence of chronic conditions, long wait times, poor availability of after-hours care, and a lack of prescription drugs and dental coverage.^[346] An increasing problem in Canada's health system is a lack of healthcare professionals,^[347] and hospital capacity.^[348]

Education

Canada by province and territory, showing the percentage of the population aged 25 to 64 who had a bachelor's degree or higher, and the percentage point change from 2016 to 2021^[349]

Education in Canada is for the most part provided publicly, funded and overseen by federal, provincial, and local governments.^[350] Education is within provincial jurisdiction and a province's curriculum is overseen by its government.^[351] Education in Canada is generally divided into primary education, followed by secondary and post-secondary education. Education in both English and French is available in most places across Canada.^[352] Canada has a large number of universities, almost all of which are publicly funded.^[353] Established in 1663, Université Laval is the oldest post-secondary institution in Canada.^[354] The nation's three top ranking universities are the University of Toronto, McGill, and the University of British Columbia.^[355] The largest university is the University of Toronto, which has over 85,000 students.^[356]

According to a 2022 report by the OECD, Canada is one of the most educated countries in the world;^[357] the country ranks first worldwide in the percentage of adults having tertiary education, with over 56 percent of Canadian adults having attained at least an undergraduate college or university degree.^[358] Canada spends an average of 5.3 percent of its GDP on education.^[359] The country invests heavily in tertiary education (more than US$20,000 per student).^[360] As of 2022^[update], 89 percent of adults aged 25 to 64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, compared to an OECD average of 75 percent.^[361]

The mandatory education age ranges between 5–7 to 16–18 years,^[362] contributing to an adult literacy rate of 99 percent.^[363] Just over 60,000 children are homeschooled in the country as of 2016. Canada is a well-performing OECD country in reading literacy, mathematics, and science, with the average student scoring 523.7, compared with the OECD average of 493 in 2015.^[364]

Culture

Historically, Canada has been influenced by British, French, and Indigenous cultures and traditions.^[366] During the 20th century, Canadians with African, Caribbean, and Asian nationalities have added to the Canadian identity and its culture.^[367]

Canada's culture draws influences from its broad range of constituent nationalities, and policies that promote a just society are constitutionally protected.^[368] Since the 1960s, Canada has emphasized human rights and inclusiveness for all its people.^[369] The official state policy of multiculturalism is often cited as one of Canada's significant accomplishments^[370] and a key distinguishing element of Canadian identity.^[371] In Quebec, cultural identity is strong and there is a French Canadian culture that is distinct from English Canadian culture.^[372] As a whole, Canada is in theory a cultural mosaic of regional ethnic subcultures.^[373]

Canada's approach to governance emphasizing multiculturalism, which is based on selective immigration, social integration, and suppression of far-right politics, has wide public support.^[374] Government policies such as publicly funded health care, higher taxation to redistribute wealth, the outlawing of capital punishment, strong efforts to eliminate poverty, strict gun control, a social liberal attitude toward women's rights (like pregnancy termination) and LGBT rights, and legalized euthanasia and cannabis use are indicators of Canada's political and cultural values.^[375] Canadians also identify with the country's foreign aid policies, peacekeeping roles, the national park system, and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.^[376]

Symbols

Themes of nature, pioneers, trappers, and traders played an important part in the early development of Canadian symbolism.^[378] Modern symbols emphasize the country's geography, cold climate, lifestyles, and the Canadianization of traditional European and Indigenous symbols.^[379] The use of the maple leaf as a Canadian symbol dates to the early 18th century. The maple leaf is depicted on Canada's current and previous flags and on the Arms of Canada.^[380] Canada's official tartan, known as the "maple leaf tartan", reflects the colours of the maple leaf through the seasons—green in the spring, gold in the early autumn, red at the first frost, and brown after falling.^[381] The Arms of Canada are closely modelled after those of the United Kingdom, with French and distinctive Canadian elements replacing or added to those derived from the British version.^[382]

Other prominent symbols include the national motto, "A mari usque ad mare" ("From Sea to Sea"),^[383] the sports of ice hockey and lacrosse, the beaver, Canada goose, common loon, Canadian horse, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, the Canadian Rockies,^[380] and, more recently, the totem pole and Inuksuk.^[384] Canadian beer, maple syrup, tuques, canoes, nanaimo bars, butter tarts, and poutine are defined as uniquely Canadian.^[385] Canadian coins feature many of these symbols: the loon on the $1 coin, the Arms of Canada on the 50¢ piece, and the beaver on the nickel.^[386] An image of the monarch appears on $20 bank notes and the obverse of coins.^[386]

Literature

Canadian literature is often divided into French- and English-language literatures, which are rooted in the literary traditions of France and Britain, respectively.^[387] The earliest Canadian narratives were of travel and exploration.^[388] This progressed into three major themes of historical Canadian literature: nature, frontier life, and Canada's position within the world, all of which tie into the garrison mentality.^[389] In recent decades, Canada's literature has been strongly influenced by immigrants from around the world.^[390] By the 1990s, Canadian literature was viewed as some of the world's best.^[391]

Numerous Canadian authors have accumulated international literary awards,^[392] including novelist, poet, and literary critic Margaret Atwood, who received two Booker Prizes;^[393] Nobel laureate Alice Munro, who has been called the best living writer of short stories in English;^[394] and Booker Prize recipient Michael Ondaatje, who wrote the novel The English Patient, which was adapted as a film of the same name that won the Academy Award for Best Picture.^[395] L. M. Montgomery produced a series of children's novels beginning in 1908 with Anne of Green Gables.^[396]

Media

Canada's media is highly autonomous, uncensored, diverse, and very regionalized.^[397] The Broadcasting Act declares "the system should serve to safeguard, enrich, and strengthen the cultural, political, social, and economic fabric of Canada".^[398] Canada has a well-developed media sector, but its cultural output—particularly in English films, television shows, and magazines—is often overshadowed by imports from the United States.^[399] As a result, the preservation of a distinctly Canadian culture is supported by federal government programs, laws, and institutions such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), the National Film Board of Canada (NFB), and the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC).^[400]

Canadian mass media, both print and digital, and in both official languages, is largely dominated by a "handful of corporations".^[401] The largest of these corporations is the country's national public broadcaster, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, which also plays a significant role in producing domestic cultural content, operating its own radio and TV networks in both English and French.^[402] In addition to the CBC, some provincial governments offer their own public educational TV broadcast services as well, such as TVOntario and Télé-Québec.^[403]

Non-news media content in Canada, including film and television, is influenced both by local creators as well as by imports from the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, and France.^[404] In an effort to reduce the amount of foreign-made media, government interventions in television broadcasting can include both regulation of content and public financing.^[405] Canadian tax laws limit foreign competition in magazine advertising.^[406]

Visual arts

Art in Canada is marked by thousands of years of habitation by Indigenous peoples,^[408] and, in later times, artists have combined British, French, Indigenous, and American artistic traditions, at times embracing European styles while working to promote nationalism.^[409] The nature of Canadian art reflects these diverse origins, as artists have taken their traditions and adapted these influences to reflect the reality of their lives in Canada.^[410]

Modern painting in Canada has been greatly influenced by several major movements that have emerged over the years. One of the most prominent movements is the Group of Seven, which was founded in 1920, aimed to capture the wilderness in their artwork.^[411] Associated with the group was Emily Carr, known for her landscapes and portrayals of the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast.^[412] The mid-20th century saw the rise of abstract art in Canada, with artists like Jean-Paul Riopelle and Paul-Émile Borduas.^[413] In the 1960s and 1970s, saw emergence of conceptual art, with artists such as Michael Snow and Ian Carr-Harris.^[414] This era also saw the emergence of Indigenous artists like Norval Morrisseau, who combined traditional Indigenous techniques with modern art styles.^[415] In more recent years, contemporary art has seen a revival of figurative art, with artists such as Kent Monkman and Shuvinai Ashoona.^[416]

Music

Original publication of "O Canada" in English, 1908^[417]

Canadian music reflects a variety of regional scenes.^[418] Canada has developed a vast music infrastructure that includes church halls, chamber halls, conservatories, academies, performing arts centres, record companies, radio stations, and television music video channels.^[419] Government support programs, such as the Canada Music Fund, assist a wide range of musicians and entrepreneurs who create, produce and market original and diverse Canadian music.^[420] As a result of its cultural importance, as well as government initiatives and regulations, the Canadian music industry is one of the largest in the world,^[421] producing internationally renowned composers, musicians, and ensembles.^[422] Music broadcasting in the country is regulated by the CRTC.^[423] The Canadian Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences presents Canada's music industry awards, the Juno Awards.^[424] The Canadian Music Hall of Fame honours Canadian musicians for their lifetime achievements.^[425]

Patriotic music in Canada dates back over 200 years. The earliest work of patriotic music in Canada, "The Bold Canadian", was written in 1812.^[426] "The Maple Leaf Forever", written in 1866, was a popular patriotic song throughout English Canada and, for many years, served as an unofficial national anthem.^[427] "O Canada" also served as an unofficial national anthem for much of the 20th century and was adopted as the country's official anthem in 1980.^[428]

Sports

Canada's official national sports are ice hockey and lacrosse.^[430] Other major professional games include curling, basketball, baseball, soccer, and football.^[431] Great achievements in Canadian sports are recognized by numerous "Halls of Fame" and museums, such as Canada's Sports Hall of Fame.^[432]

Canada shares several major professional sports leagues with the United States.^[433] Canadian teams in these leagues include seven franchises in the National Hockey League, three Major League Soccer teams, and one team in each of Major League Baseball and the National Basketball Association. Other popular professional competitions include the Canadian Football League, National Lacrosse League, the Canadian Premier League, and the curling tournaments hosted by Curling Canada.^[434]

In terms of participation, swimming was the most commonly reported sport by over one-third (35 percent) of Canadians in 2023.^[435] This was closely followed by cycling (33 percent) and running (27 percent).^[435] The popularity of specific sports varies;^[436] in general, the Canadian-born population was more likely to have participated in winter sports such as ice hockey, skating, skiing and snowboarding, compared with immigrants, who were more likely to have played soccer (the most popular youth team sport),^[437] tennis or basketball.^[435] Sports such as golf, volleyball, badminton, bowling, and martial arts are also widely enjoyed at the youth and amateur levels.^[438]

Canada has enjoyed success both at the Winter Olympics and at the Summer Olympics^[439]—particularly the Winter Games as a "winter sports nation"—and has hosted high-profile international sporting events such as the 1976 Summer Olympics,^[440] the 1988 Winter Olympics,^[441] the 2010 Winter Olympics,^[442] the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup,^[443] the 2015 Pan American Games and 2015 Parapan American Games.^[444] The country is scheduled to co-host the 2026 FIFA World Cup alongside Mexico and the United States.^[445]

Notes

^ 6,416 km (3,987 mi) via the contiguous 48 states and 2,475 km (1,538 mi) via Alaska^[118]
^ "Brokerage politics: A Canadian term for successful big tent parties that embody a pluralistic catch-all approach to appeal to the median Canadian voter ... adopting centrist policies and electoral coalitions to satisfy the short-term preferences of a majority of electors who are not located on the ideological fringe."^[154] "The traditional brokerage model of Canadian politics leaves little room for ideology."^[155]
^ "The Royal Canadian Navy is composed of approximately 8,400 full-time sailors and 5,100 part-time sailors. The Army is composed of approximately 22,800 full-time soldiers, 18,700 reservists, and 5,000 Canadian Rangers. The Royal Canadian Air Force is composed of approximately 13,000 Regular Force personnel and 2,400 Air Reserve personnel."^[216]
^ All citizens of Canada are classified as "Canadians" as defined by Canada's nationality laws. "Canadian" as an ethnic group has since 1996 been added to census questionnaires for possible ancestral origin or descent. "Canadian" was included as an example on the English questionnaire and "Canadien" as an example on the French questionnaire.^[295] "The majority of respondents to this selection are from the eastern part of the country that was first settled. Respondents generally are visibly European (Anglophones and Francophones) and no longer self-identify with their ethnic ancestral origins. This response is attributed to a multitude or generational distance from ancestral lineage."^[296]
^ Indigenous peoples are not considered a visible minority in Statistics Canada calculations. Visible minorities are defined by Statistics Canada as "persons, other than aboriginal peoples, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour".^[300]
^ Catholic Church (29.9%), United Church (3.3%), Anglican Church (3.1%), Eastern Orthodoxy (1.7%), Baptistism (1.2%), Pentecostalism and other Charismatic (1.1%) Anabaptist (0.4%), Jehovah's Witness (0.4%), Latter Day Saints (0.2%), Lutheran (0.9%), Methodist and Wesleyan (Holiness) (0.3%), Presbyterian (0.8%), and Reformed (0.2%).^[328] 7.6 percent simply identified as "Christians".^[329]

References

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External links

Overviews

Canada from UCB Libraries GovPubs
Canada profile from the OECD
Key Development Forecasts for Canada from International Futures

Government

Travel

Canada's official website for travel and tourism

60°N 110°W / 60°N 110°W / 60; -110

[canadausa-119] 6,416 km (3,987 mi) via the contiguous 48 states and 2,475 km (1,538 mi) via Alaska^[118]

[politics-157] "Brokerage politics: A Canadian term for successful big tent parties that embody a pluralistic catch-all approach to appeal to the median Canadian voter ... adopting centrist policies and electoral coalitions to satisfy the short-term preferences of a majority of electors who are not located on the ideological fringe."^[154] "The traditional brokerage model of Canadian politics leaves little room for ideology."^[155]

[Force-219] "The Royal Canadian Navy is composed of approximately 8,400 full-time sailors and 5,100 part-time sailors. The Army is composed of approximately 22,800 full-time soldiers, 18,700 reservists, and 5,000 Canadian Rangers. The Royal Canadian Air Force is composed of approximately 13,000 Regular Force personnel and 2,400 Air Reserve personnel."^[216]

[Canadian-300] All citizens of Canada are classified as "Canadians" as defined by Canada's nationality laws. "Canadian" as an ethnic group has since 1996 been added to census questionnaires for possible ancestral origin or descent. "Canadian" was included as an example on the English questionnaire and "Canadien" as an example on the French questionnaire.^[295] "The majority of respondents to this selection are from the eastern part of the country that was first settled. Respondents generally are visibly European (Anglophones and Francophones) and no longer self-identify with their ethnic ancestral origins. This response is attributed to a multitude or generational distance from ancestral lineage."^[296]

[305] Indigenous peoples are not considered a visible minority in Statistics Canada calculations. Visible minorities are defined by Statistics Canada as "persons, other than aboriginal peoples, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour".^[300]

[religion-335] Catholic Church (29.9%), United Church (3.3%), Anglican Church (3.1%), Eastern Orthodoxy (1.7%), Baptistism (1.2%), Pentecostalism and other Charismatic (1.1%) Anabaptist (0.4%), Jehovah's Witness (0.4%), Latter Day Saints (0.2%), Lutheran (0.9%), Methodist and Wesleyan (Holiness) (0.3%), Presbyterian (0.8%), and Reformed (0.2%).^[328] 7.6 percent simply identified as "Christians".^[329]

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@@ Line 58: / Line 58: @@
 | population_density_sq_mi = 10.9<!--Do not remove per [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers]]-->
 | population_density_rank = 236th
-| GDP_PPP                = {{increase}} {{nowrap|$2.472&nbsp;trillion}}<ref name="IMFWEO.CA">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/April/weo-report?c=156,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2022&ey=2029&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2024 Edition. (Canada) |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=www.imf.org |date=April 16, 2024 |access-date=April 16, 2024}}</ref>
+| GDP_PPP                = {{increase}} {{nowrap|$2.582&nbsp;trillion}}<ref name="IMFWEO.CA">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/October/weo-report?c=156,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2022&ey=2029&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2024 Edition. (Canada) |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=www.imf.org |date=October 25, 2024 |access-date=November 11, 2024}}</ref>
 | GDP_PPP_year           = 2024
 | GDP_PPP_rank           = 16th
-| GDP_PPP_per_capita     = {{increase}} $60,495<ref name="IMFWEO.CA" />
+| GDP_PPP_per_capita     = {{increase}} $62,766<ref name="IMFWEO.CA" />
-| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 28th
+| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 30th
-| GDP_nominal            = {{increase}} {{nowrap|$2.242{{nbsp}}trillion}}<ref name="IMFWEO.CA" />
+| GDP_nominal            = {{increase}} {{nowrap|$2.215{{nbsp}}trillion}}<ref name="IMFWEO.CA" />
 | GDP_nominal_year       = 2024
-| GDP_nominal_rank       = 10th
+| GDP_nominal_rank       = 9th
-| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $54,866<ref name="IMFWEO.CA" />
+| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $53,834<ref name="IMFWEO.CA" />
-| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 18th
+| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 19th
 | Gini                   = 29.2 <!--number only-->
 | Gini_year              = 2024
@@ Line 85: / Line 85: @@
 <!---Overly detailed information such as listing examples, statistics or naming individuals should be reserved for the body of the article.--->
-'''Canada'''<!--Before you edit this article to change the name of the country to "Dominion of Canada", please read the Talk Page Archive.--> is a country in [[North America]]. Its [[Provinces and territories of Canada|ten provinces and three territories]] extend from the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the [[Pacific Ocean]] and northward into the [[Arctic Ocean]], making it the world's [[List of countries and dependencies by area|second-largest country by total area]], with the [[List of countries by length of coastline|world's longest coastline]]. Its [[Canada–United States border|border with the United States]] is the world's longest international land border. The country is characterized by a wide range of both [[Temperature in Canada|meteorologic]] and [[Geography of Canada|geological]] regions. It is [[Population of Canada|a sparsely inhabited country]] of just over 41{{nbsp}}million people, the majority residing south of the [[49th parallel north|49th parallel]] in [[List of the largest population centres in Canada|urban areas]]. Canada's capital is [[Ottawa]] and [[List of census metropolitan areas and agglomerations in Canada|its three largest metropolitan areas]] are [[Toronto]], [[Montreal]], and [[Vancouver]].
+'''Canada'''<!--Before you edit this article to change the name of the country to "Dominion of Canada", please read the Talk Page Archive.--> is a country in [[North America]]. Its [[Provinces and territories of Canada|ten provinces and three territories]] extend from the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the [[Pacific Ocean]] and northward into the [[Arctic Ocean]], making it the world's [[List of countries and dependencies by area|second-largest country by total area]], with the [[List of countries by length of coastline|world's longest coastline]]. Its [[Canada–United States border|border with the United States]] is the world's longest international land border. The country is characterized by a wide range of both [[Temperature in Canada|meteorologic]] and [[Geography of Canada|geological]] regions. With a [[Population of Canada|population]] of just over 41{{nbsp}}million people, it has widely varying population densities, with the majority residing in [[List of the largest population centres in Canada|urban areas]] and large areas of the country being sparsely populated. Canada's capital is [[Ottawa]] and [[List of census metropolitan areas and agglomerations in Canada|its three largest metropolitan areas]] are [[Toronto]], [[Montreal]], and [[Vancouver]].
-[[Indigenous peoples in Canada|Indigenous peoples]] have continuously inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years. Beginning in the 16th century, [[British colonization of the Americas|British]] and [[French colonization of the Americas|French]] expeditions explored and later settled along the Atlantic coast. As a consequence of [[Military history of Canada|various armed conflicts]], France [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|ceded nearly all]] of [[New France|its colonies in North America]] in 1763. In 1867, with the union of three [[British North America]]n colonies through [[Canadian Confederation|Confederation]], Canada was formed as a [[Federalism|federal]] [[dominion]] of four provinces. This began an [[Territorial evolution of Canada|accretion of provinces and territories]] and a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom, highlighted by the ''[[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster, 1931]]'', and culminating in the ''[[Canada Act 1982]]'', which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]].
+[[Indigenous peoples in Canada|Indigenous peoples]] have continuously inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years. Beginning in the 16th century, [[British colonization of the Americas|British]] and [[French colonization of the Americas|French]] expeditions explored and later settled along the Atlantic coast. As a consequence of [[Military history of Canada|various armed conflicts]], France [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|ceded nearly all]] of [[New France|its colonies in North America]] in 1763. In 1867, with the union of three [[British North America]]n colonies through [[Canadian Confederation|Confederation]], Canada was formed as a [[Federalism|federal]] [[dominion]] of four provinces. This began an [[Territorial evolution of Canada|accretion of provinces and territories]] resulting in the [[Numbered Treaties|displacement of Indigenous populations]], and a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom. This increased sovereignty was highlighted by the ''[[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster, 1931]]'', and culminating in the ''[[Canada Act 1982]]'', which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]].
-Canada is a [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary democracy]] and a [[constitutional monarchy]] in the [[Westminster system|Westminster tradition]]. The country's [[head of government]] is the [[Prime Minister of Canada|prime minister]], who holds office by virtue of their ability to [[Confidence and supply|command the confidence]] of the elected [[House of Commons of Canada|House of Commons]] and is appointed by the [[Governor General of Canada|governor general]], representing the [[Monarchy of Canada|monarch of Canada]], the ceremonial [[head of state]]. The country is a [[Commonwealth realm]] and is [[Official bilingualism in Canada|officially bilingual]] (English and French) in the federal jurisdiction. It is [[International rankings of Canada|very highly ranked in international measurements]] of government transparency, quality of life, economic competitiveness, innovation, education and gender equality. It is one of the world's most [[Ethnic origins of people in Canada|ethnically diverse]] and [[Multiculturalism in Canada|multicultural]] nations, the product of [[Immigration to Canada|large-scale immigration]]. Canada's long and complex [[Canada–United States relations|relationship with the United States]] has had a significant impact on [[History of Canada|its history]], [[Economy of Canada|economy]], and [[Culture of Canada|culture]].
+Canada is a [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary democracy]] and a [[constitutional monarchy]] in the [[Westminster system|Westminster tradition]]. The country's [[head of government]] is the [[Prime Minister of Canada|prime minister]], who holds office by virtue of their ability to [[Confidence and supply|command the confidence]] of the elected [[House of Commons of Canada|House of Commons]] and is appointed by the [[Governor General of Canada|governor general]], representing the [[Monarchy of Canada|monarch of Canada]], the ceremonial [[head of state]]. The country is a [[Commonwealth realm]] and is [[Official bilingualism in Canada|officially bilingual]] (English and French) in the federal jurisdiction. It is [[International rankings of Canada|very highly ranked in international measurements]] of government transparency, quality of life, economic competitiveness, innovation, education and human rights. It is one of the world's most [[Ethnic origins of people in Canada|ethnically diverse]] and [[Multiculturalism in Canada|multicultural]] nations, the product of [[Immigration to Canada|large-scale immigration]]. Canada's long and complex [[Canada–United States relations|relationship with the United States]] has had a significant impact on [[History of Canada|its history]], [[Economy of Canada|economy]], and [[Culture of Canada|culture]].
 A [[developed country]], Canada has a [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|high nominal per capita income globally]] and its advanced economy ranks among the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|largest in the world]], relying chiefly upon [[Geography of Canada#Natural resources|its abundant natural resources]] and well-developed [[List of the largest trading partners of Canada|international trade networks]]. Recognized as a [[middle power]], Canada's strong support for [[multilateralism]] and [[Internationalism (politics)|internationalism]] has been closely related to [[Foreign relations of Canada|its foreign relations policies]] of [[Canadian peacekeeping|peacekeeping]] and [[Aid|aid for developing countries]]. Canada is part of [[International organisation membership of Canada|multiple international organizations and forums]].
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 While a variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological origins of ''Canada'', the name is now accepted as coming from the [[St. Lawrence Iroquoians|St. Lawrence Iroquoian]] word {{lang|lre|kanata}}, meaning "village" or "settlement".<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Olson |first1=James Stuart |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uyqepNdgUWkC&pg=PA109 |title=Historical Dictionary of European Imperialism |last2=Shadle |first2=Robert |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-313-26257-9 |page=109}}</ref> In 1535, Indigenous inhabitants of the present-day [[Quebec City]] region used the word to direct French explorer [[Jacques Cartier]] to the village of [[Stadacona]].<ref name="Rayburn2001">{{Cite book |last=Rayburn |first=Alan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aiUZMOypNB4C&pg=PA14 |title=Naming Canada: Stories about Canadian Place Names |publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-8020-8293-0 |pages=14–22}}</ref> Cartier later used the word ''Canada'' to refer not only to that particular village but to the entire area subject to [[Donnacona]] (the chief at Stadacona);<ref name="Rayburn2001" /> by 1545, European books and maps had begun referring to this small region along the [[Saint Lawrence River]] as ''Canada''.<ref name="Rayburn2001" />
-From the 16th to the early 18th century, ''[[Canada (New France)|Canada]]'' referred to the part of [[New France]] that lay along the Saint Lawrence River.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Magocsi |first=Paul R. |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofca0000unse_q5r1 |title=Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-8020-2938-6 |page=1048 |url-access=registration}}</ref> Following the British [[conquest of New France]], this area was known as the British [[Province of Quebec (1763–1791)|Province of Quebec]] from 1763 to 1791.<ref name="f014">{{cite web | title=Province of Quebec 1763-91 | website=The Canadian Encyclopedia | date=May 14, 2020 | url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/province-of-quebec-1763-91 | access-date=October 1, 2024}}</ref>  In 1791, the area became two British colonies called [[Upper Canada]] and [[Lower Canada]]. These two colonies were collectively named [[the Canadas]] until their union as the British [[Province of Canada]] in 1841.<ref>{{cite web |year=1841 |title=An Act to Re-write the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, and for the Government of Canada |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BCQtAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA20 |publisher=J.C. Fisher & W. Kimble |page=20}}</ref>
+From the 16th to the early 18th century, ''[[Canada (New France)|Canada]]'' referred to the part of [[New France]] that lay along the Saint Lawrence River.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Magocsi |first=Paul R. |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofca0000unse_q5r1 |title=Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-8020-2938-6 |page=1048 |url-access=registration}}</ref> Following the British [[conquest of New France]], this area was known as the British [[Province of Quebec (1763–1791)|Province of Quebec]] from 1763 to 1791.<ref name="f014">{{cite web | title=Province of Quebec 1763-91 | website=The Canadian Encyclopedia | date=May 14, 2020 | url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/province-of-quebec-1763-91 | access-date=October 1, 2024}}</ref> In 1791, the area became two British colonies called [[Upper Canada]] and [[Lower Canada]]. These two colonies were collectively named [[the Canadas]] until their union as the British [[Province of Canada]] in 1841.<ref>{{cite web |year=1841 |title=An Act to Re-write the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, and for the Government of Canada |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BCQtAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA20 |publisher=J.C. Fisher & W. Kimble |page=20}}</ref>
 Upon [[Canadian Confederation|Confederation in 1867]], ''Canada'' was adopted as the legal name for the new country at the [[London Conference of 1866|London Conference]] and the word ''[[dominion]]'' was conferred as the country's title.<ref>{{Cite book |last=O'Toole |first=Roger |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OGHgLlxfh7wC&pg=PA137 |title=Holy Nations and Global Identities: Civil Religion, Nationalism, and Globalisation |publisher=Brill |year=2009 |isbn=978-90-04-17828-1 |editor-last=Hvithamar |editor-first=Annika |page=137 |chapter=Dominion of the Gods: Religious continuity and change in a Canadian context |editor-last2=Warburg |editor-first2=Margit |editor-last3=Jacobsen |editor-first3=Brian Arly}}</ref> By the 1950s, the term ''Dominion of Canada'' was no longer used by the United Kingdom, which considered Canada a "realm of the Commonwealth".<ref>{{multiref2
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 }}</ref>
-Although not without conflict, [[European Canadians]]' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Preston |first=David L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L-9N6-6UCnoC&pg=PA43 |title=The Texture of Contact: European and Indian Settler Communities on the Frontiers of Iroquoia, 1667–1783 |publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8032-2549-7 |pages=43–44}}</ref> First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of [[Former colonies and territories in Canada|European colonies in Canada]], particularly for their role in assisting European [[coureur des bois|coureurs des bois]] and [[voyageurs]] in their explorations of the continent during the [[North American fur trade]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Miller |first=J.R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TcPckf7snr8C&pg=PT34 |title=Compact, Contract, Covenant: Aboriginal Treaty-Making in Canada |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4426-9227-5 |page=34}}</ref> These early European interactions with First Nations would change from [[Peace and Friendship Treaties|friendship and peace treaties]] to the dispossession of Indigenous lands through treaties.<ref>{{multiref2
+Although not without conflict, [[European Canadians]]' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Preston |first=David L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L-9N6-6UCnoC&pg=PA43 |title=The Texture of Contact: European and Indian Settler Communities on the Frontiers of Iroquoia, 1667–1783 |publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8032-2549-7 |pages=43–44}}</ref> First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of [[Former colonies and territories in Canada|European colonies in Canada]], particularly for their role in assisting European [[coureur des bois|coureurs des bois]] and [[voyageurs]] in their explorations of the continent during the [[North American fur trade]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Miller |first=J.R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TcPckf7snr8C&pg=PT34 |title=Compact, Contract, Covenant: Aboriginal Treaty-Making in Canada |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4426-9227-5 |page=34}}</ref> These early European interactions with First Nations would change from [[Peace and Friendship Treaties|friendship and peace treaties]] to the [[Numbered Treaties|dispossession of Indigenous lands through treaties]].<ref>{{multiref2
 | {{cite book |last=Williams |first=L. |title=Indigenous Intergenerational Resilience: Confronting Cultural and Ecological Crisis |publisher=Taylor & Francis |series=Routledge Studies in Indigenous Peoples and Policy |year=2021 |isbn=978-1-000-47233-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HehEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT51 |page=51}}
 | {{cite book |last=Turner |first=N.J. |title=Plants, People, and Places: The Roles of Ethnobotany and Ethnoecology in Indigenous Peoples' Land Rights in Canada and Beyond |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |series=McGill-Queen's Indigenous and Northern Studies |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-2280-0317-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JVjZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14 |page=14}}
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 | caption2          = The same poster in English, with subtle differences in text. "They serve France—How can I serve Canada? Buy Victory Bonds".
 }}
-Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs under the British North America Act, 1867, its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought [[Military history of Canada during World War I|Canada into the First World War]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tennyson |first=Brian Douglas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w2OeBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 |title=Canada's Great War, 1914–1918: How Canada Helped Save the British Empire and Became a North American Nation |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-8108-8860-9 |page=4}}</ref> Volunteers sent to the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]] later became part of the [[Canadian Corps]], which played a substantial role in the [[Battle of Vimy Ridge]] and other major engagements of the war.<ref name="morton-milhist">{{Cite book |last=Morton |first=Desmond |title=A military history of Canada |publisher=[[McClelland & Stewart]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-7710-6514-9 |edition=4th |pages=130–158, 173, 203–233, 258}}</ref> The [[Conscription Crisis of 1917]] erupted when the [[Unionist Party (Canada)|Unionist]] Cabinet's proposal to augment the military's dwindling number of active members with [[conscription]] was met with vehement objections from French-speaking Quebecers.<ref name="McGonigal1962">{{Cite book |last=McGonigal |first=Richard Morton |title=The Conscription Crisis in Quebec – 1917: a Study in Canadian Dualism |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |year=1962 |chapter=Intro}}</ref> The ''Military Service Act'' brought in compulsory military service, though it, coupled with disputes over French language schools outside Quebec, deeply alienated Francophone Canadians and temporarily split the Liberal Party.<ref name="McGonigal1962" /> In 1919, Canada joined the [[League of Nations]] independently of Britain,<ref name="morton-milhist" /> and the ''[[Statute of Westminster, 1931]]'', affirmed Canada's independence.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Morton |first=Frederick Lee |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dj_4_H35nmYC&pg=PA63 |title=Law, Politics and the Judicial Process in Canada |publisher=University of Calgary Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-55238-046-8 |page=63}}</ref>
+Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs under the British North America Act, 1867, its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought [[Military history of Canada during World War I|Canada into the First World War]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tennyson |first=Brian Douglas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w2OeBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 |title=Canada's Great War, 1914–1918: How Canada Helped Save the British Empire and Became a North American Nation |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-8108-8860-9 |page=4}}</ref> Volunteers sent to the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]] later became part of the [[Canadian Corps]], which played a substantial role in the [[Battle of Vimy Ridge]] and other major engagements of the war.<ref name="morton-milhist">{{Cite book |last=Morton |first=Desmond |title=A military history of Canada |publisher=[[McClelland & Stewart]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-7710-6514-9 |edition=4th |pages=130–158, 173, 203–233, 258}}</ref> The [[Conscription Crisis of 1917]] erupted when the [[Unionist Party (Canada)|Unionist]] Cabinet's proposal to augment the military's dwindling number of active members with [[conscription]] was met with vehement objections from French-speaking Quebecers.<ref name="McGonigal1962">{{Cite book |last=McGonigal |first=Richard Morton |title=The Conscription Crisis in Quebec – 1917: a Study in Canadian Dualism |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |year=1962 |chapter=Intro}}</ref> In 1919, Canada joined the [[League of Nations]] independently of Britain,<ref name="morton-milhist" /> and the ''[[Statute of Westminster, 1931]]'', affirmed Canada's independence.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Morton |first=Frederick Lee |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dj_4_H35nmYC&pg=PA63 |title=Law, Politics and the Judicial Process in Canada |publisher=University of Calgary Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-55238-046-8 |page=63}}</ref>
 The [[Great Depression in Canada]] during the early 1930s saw an economic downturn, leading to hardship across the country.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bryce |first=Robert B. |url=https://archive.org/details/maturinginhardti0000bryc |title=Maturing in Hard Times: Canada's Department of Finance through the Great Depression |year=1986 |publisher=[[McGill–Queen's University Press|McGill-Queen's]] |isbn=978-0-7735-0555-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/maturinginhardti0000bryc/page/41 41] |url-access=registration}}</ref> In response to the downturn, the [[Co-operative Commonwealth Federation]] (CCF) in Saskatchewan introduced many elements of a [[welfare state]] (as pioneered by [[Tommy Douglas]]) in the 1940s and 1950s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mulvale |first=James P |date=July 11, 2008 |title=Basic Income and the Canadian Welfare State: Exploring the Realms of Possibility |journal=Basic Income Studies |volume=3 |issue=1 |doi=10.2202/1932-0183.1084}}</ref> On the advice of Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]], [[Declaration of war by Canada#Nazi Germany|war with Germany was declared]] effective September 10, 1939, by King [[George VI]], seven days after the United Kingdom. The delay underscored Canada's independence.<ref name="morton-milhist" />
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 [[File:Canada topo.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.3|A topographic map of Canada, in polar projection (for 90° W), showing elevations shaded from green to brown (higher)|alt=refer to caption]]
-By total area (including its waters), Canada is the [[List of countries and dependencies by area|second-largest country]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Brescia |first1=Michael M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q2qzBUEWxpoC&pg=PA38 |title=North America: An Introduction |last2=Super |first2=John C. |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8020-9675-3 |page=38}}</ref> By land area alone, Canada [[List of countries and dependencies by area|ranks fourth]], due to having the world's largest area of [[List of lakes of Canada|fresh water lakes]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Battram |first=Robert A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pBc9349sw4QC&pg=PA1 |title=Canada in Crisis: An Agenda for Survival of the Nation |publisher=[[Trafford Publishing]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-4269-3393-6 |page=1}}</ref> Stretching from the [[Atlantic Ocean]] in the east, along the [[Arctic Ocean]] to the north, and to the [[Pacific Ocean]] in the west, the country encompasses {{convert|9984670|km2|abbr=on}} of territory.<ref name="McColl2005">{{Cite book |last=McColl |first=R. W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DJgnebGbAB8C&pg=PA135 |title=Encyclopedia of World Geography |date=September 2005 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-0-8160-5786-3 |page=135}}</ref> Canada also has vast maritime terrain, with the world's longest coastline of {{convert|243042|km|mi}}.<ref name="International Boundary Commission" /> In addition to sharing [[Canada–United States border|the world's largest land border with the United States]]—spanning {{convert|8,891|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}{{efn|name="canadausa"|{{cvt|6,416|km}} via the [[contiguous 48 states]] and {{cvt|2,475|km}} via [[Alaska]]<ref name="International Boundary Commission">{{cite web |title=Boundary Facts |publisher=International Boundary Commission |url=https://www.internationalboundarycommission.org/en/the-boundary-and-you/interesting-facts.php |access-date=May 20, 2023 |archive-date=May 20, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230520142611/https://www.internationalboundarycommission.org/en/the-boundary-and-you/interesting-facts.php |url-status=live}}</ref>}}—Canada shares a land border with [[Greenland]] (and hence the [[Kingdom of Denmark]]) to the northeast, on [[Hans Island]],<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chase |first1=Steven |title=Canada and Denmark reach settlement over disputed Arctic island, sources say |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/politics/article-canada-and-denmark-reach-settlement-over-disputed-arctic-island/ |website=The Globe and Mail |date=June 10, 2022 |archive-date=June 12, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220612214859/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/politics/article-canada-and-denmark-reach-settlement-over-disputed-arctic-island/ |url-status=live}}</ref> and a [[maritime boundary]] with [[France]]'s [[overseas collectivity]] of [[Saint Pierre and Miquelon]] to the southeast.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gallay |first=Alan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=22rbCQAAQBAJ&pg=PT429 |title=Colonial Wars of North America, 1512–1763: An Encyclopedia |date=2015 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-317-48718-0 |page=429}}</ref> Canada is also home to the world's northernmost settlement, [[CFS Alert|Canadian Forces Station Alert]], on the northern tip of [[Ellesmere Island]]—latitude 82.5°N—which lies {{convert|817|km|mi}} from the North Pole.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Canadian Geographic |publisher=[[Royal Canadian Geographical Society]] |year=2008 |page=20}}</ref>
+By total area (including its waters), Canada is the [[List of countries and dependencies by area|second-largest country]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Brescia |first1=Michael M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q2qzBUEWxpoC&pg=PA38 |title=North America: An Introduction |last2=Super |first2=John C. |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8020-9675-3 |page=38}}</ref> By land area alone, Canada [[List of countries and dependencies by area|ranks fourth]], due to having the world's largest area of [[List of lakes of Canada|fresh water lakes]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Battram |first=Robert A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pBc9349sw4QC&pg=PA1 |title=Canada in Crisis: An Agenda for Survival of the Nation |publisher=[[Trafford Publishing]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-4269-3393-6 |page=1}}</ref> Stretching from the [[Atlantic Ocean]] in the east, along the [[Arctic Ocean]] to the north, and to the [[Pacific Ocean]] in the west, the country encompasses {{convert|9984670|km2|abbr=on}} of territory.<ref name="McColl2005">{{Cite book |last=McColl |first=R. W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DJgnebGbAB8C&pg=PA135 |title=Encyclopedia of World Geography |date=September 2005 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-0-8160-5786-3 |page=135}}</ref> Canada also has vast maritime terrain, with the world's longest coastline of {{convert|243042|km|mi}}.<ref name="International Boundary Commission" /> In addition to sharing [[Canada–United States border|the world's largest land border with the United States]]—spanning {{convert|8,891|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}{{efn|name="canadausa"|{{cvt|6,416|km}} via the [[contiguous 48 states]] and {{cvt|2,475|km}} via [[Alaska]]<ref name="International Boundary Commission">{{cite web |title=Boundary Facts |publisher=International Boundary Commission |url=https://www.internationalboundarycommission.org/en/the-boundary-and-you/interesting-facts.php |access-date=May 20, 2023 |archive-date=May 20, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230520142611/https://www.internationalboundarycommission.org/en/the-boundary-and-you/interesting-facts.php |url-status=live}}</ref>}}—Canada shares a land border with [[Greenland]] (and hence the [[Kingdom of Denmark]]) to the northeast, on [[Hans Island]],<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chase |first1=Steven |title=Canada and Denmark reach settlement over disputed Arctic island, sources say |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/politics/article-canada-and-denmark-reach-settlement-over-disputed-arctic-island/ |website=The Globe and Mail |date=June 10, 2022 |archive-date=June 12, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220612214859/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/politics/article-canada-and-denmark-reach-settlement-over-disputed-arctic-island/ |url-status=live}}</ref> and a [[maritime boundary]] with [[France]]'s [[overseas collectivity]] of [[Saint Pierre and Miquelon]] to the southeast.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gallay |first=Alan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=22rbCQAAQBAJ&pg=PT429 |title=Colonial Wars of North America, 1512–1763: An Encyclopedia |date=2015 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-317-48718-0 |page=429}}</ref> Canada is also home to the world's northernmost settlement, [[CFS Alert|Canadian Forces Station Alert]], on the northern tip of [[Ellesmere Island]]—latitude 82.5°N—which lies {{convert|817|km|mi}} from the North Pole.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Canadian Geographic |publisher=[[Royal Canadian Geographical Society]] |year=2008 |page=20}}</ref> In latitude, Canada's most northerly point of land is [[Cape Columbia]] in Nunavut at 83°6′41″N, with its southern extreme at [[Middle Island (Lake Erie)|Middle Island]] in Lake Erie at 41°40′53″N. In longitude, Canada's land extends from [[Cape Spear]], Newfoundland, at 52°37'W, to [[Mount Saint Elias|Mount St. Elias]], Yukon Territory, at 141°W.<ref name="p496">{{cite web | title=Where is Canada in the World? | website=World Population by Country 2024 (Live) | url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/canada/location | access-date=October 26, 2024}}</ref>
 Canada can be divided into seven physiographic regions: the [[Canadian Shield]], the [[interior plains]], the [[Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands]], the [[Appalachian Mountains|Appalachian region]], the [[Pacific Cordillera (Canada)|Western Cordillera]], [[Hudson Bay Lowlands]], and the [[Arctic Archipelago]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://atlas.gc.ca/phys/en/index.html |work=The Atlas of Canada |title=Physiographic Regions of Canada |publisher=Natural Resources Canada |date=September 12, 2016 |archive-date=June 21, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210621185011/https://atlas.gc.ca/phys/en/index.html |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Taiga|Boreal forests]] prevail throughout the country, ice is prominent in [[Northern Canada|northern Arctic regions]] and through the [[Rocky Mountains]], and the relatively flat [[Canadian Prairies]] in the southwest facilitate productive agriculture.<ref name="McColl2005" /> The Great Lakes feed the [[St. Lawrence River]] (in the southeast) where the lowlands host much of Canada's economic output.<ref name="McColl2005" /> Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes—563 of which are larger than {{convert|100|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}—containing much of the world's [[fresh water]].<ref>{{multiref2
@@ Line 280: / Line 280: @@
 At the federal level, Canada has been dominated by two relatively [[Centrism|centrist]] parties practising "brokerage politics":{{efn| name=politics|"Brokerage politics: A Canadian term for successful [[Big tent|big tent parties]] that embody a [[Pluralism (political philosophy)|pluralistic]] catch-all approach to appeal to the median Canadian voter ... adopting [[Centrism|centrist policies]] and [[Electoral alliance|electoral coalitions]] to satisfy the short-term preferences of a majority of electors who are not located on the ideological fringe."<ref>{{multiref2
 | {{cite book |last1=Marland |first1=Alex |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GSeSaYPa2A4C&pg=PA257 |title=Political Marketing in Canada |last2=Giasson |first2=Thierry |last3=Lees-Marshment |first3=Jennifer |publisher=UBC Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-7748-2231-2 |page=257}}
 |{{Cite book |last1=Courtney |first1=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5KomEXgxvMcC&pg=PA195 |title=The Oxford Handbook of Canadian Politics |last2=Smith |first2=David |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-533535-4 |page=195}}
 }}</ref> "The traditional ''brokerage'' model of Canadian politics leaves little room for ideology."<ref>{{multiref2
-|
 |{{cite journal |first=Christopher |last=Cochrane |year=2010 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/40983510 |title=Left/Right Ideology and Canadian Politics |journal=Canadian Journal of Political Science / Revue Canadienne de Science Politique |volume=43 |issue=3 |pages=583–605 |doi=10.1017/S0008423910000624 |jstor=40983510 }}
 |{{cite book |first=Stephen |last=Brooks |title=Canadian Democracy: An Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DeQnPIXV5CEC |year=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-541806-4 |page=265 |quote=Two historically dominant political parties have avoided ideological appeals in favour of a flexible centrist style of politics that is often labelled brokerage politics}}
 |{{cite book |first=Miriam |last=Smith |title=Group Politics and Social Movements in Canada: Second Edition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iG4rAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA17 |year=2014 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-0695-1 |page=17 |quote=Canada's party system has long been described as a "brokerage system" in which the leading parties (Liberal and Conservative) follow strategies that appeal across major [[Cleavage (politics)|social cleavages]] in an effort to defuse potential tensions.}}
+|{{cite book |first=David |last=Johnson |title=Thinking Government: Public Administration and Politics in Canada|edition= 4th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I_HzDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 |year=2016 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-3521-0 |pages=13–23 |quote=...most Canadian governments, especially in the federal sphere, have taken a moderate, centrist approach to decision making, seeking to balance growth, stability, and governmental efficiency and economy...}}}}</ref>
+}} the [[Centre-left politics|centre-left]] leaning [[Liberal Party of Canada]]<ref>{{multiref2
-|{{cite book |first=David |last=Johnson |title=Thinking Government: Public Administration and Politics in Canada|edition= 4th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I_HzDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 |year=2016 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-3521-0 |pages=13–23 |quote=...most Canadian governments, especially in the federal sphere, have taken a moderate, centrist approach to decision making, seeking to balance growth, stability, and governmental efficiency and economy...}}</ref>}} the [[Centre-left politics|centre-left]] leaning [[Liberal Party of Canada]]<ref>{{multiref2
 | {{cite book |last1=Bittner |first1=Amanda |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TdFTCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA300 |title=Parties, Elections, and the Future of Canadian Politics |last2=Koop |first2=Royce |date=March 1, 2013 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-2411-8 |page=300}}
 | {{cite web |last=Johnston |first=Richard |title=The baffling history of Canada's party system |website=Policy Options |date=April 13, 2021 |url=https://policyoptions.irpp.org/magazines/october-2017/the-baffling-history-of-canadas-party-system/ |archive-date=December 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221209225002/https://policyoptions.irpp.org/magazines/october-2017/the-baffling-history-of-canadas-party-system/ |url-status=live}}
@@ Line 296: / Line 292: @@
 | {{cite book |last1=Evans |first1=Geoffrey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bZhcx6hLOMMC&pg=PA166 |title=Political Choice Matters: Explaining the Strength of Class and Religious Cleavages in Cross-National Perspective |last2=de Graaf |first2=Nan Dirk |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-966399-6 |pages=166–167}}
 | {{cite book |last=Johnston |first=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aZAwDwAAQBAJ |title=The Canadian Party System: An Analytic History |publisher=UBC Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-7748-3610-4}}
-}}</ref>); the [[Bloc Québécois]]; and the [[Green Party of Canada|Green Party]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Election 2015 roundup |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news2/interactives/results-2015/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151022233012/http://www.cbc.ca/news2/interactives/results-2015/ |archive-date=October 22, 2015 |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation}}</ref> [[Far-right]] and [[far-left]] politics have never been a prominent force in Canadian society.<ref>
+}}</ref>); the [[Bloc Québécois]]; and the [[Green Party of Canada|Green Party]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Election 2015 roundup |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news2/interactives/results-2015/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151022233012/http://www.cbc.ca/news2/interactives/results-2015/ |archive-date=October 22, 2015 |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation}}</ref> [[Far-right]] and [[far-left]] politics have never been a prominent force in Canadian society.<ref>{{multiref2
-{{Cite journal |last1=Ambrose |first1=Emma |last2=Mudde |first2=Cas |year=2015 |title=Canadian Multiculturalism and the Absence of the Far Right |journal=Nationalism and Ethnic Politics |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=213–236 |doi=10.1080/13537113.2015.1032033}}
+|{{Cite journal |last1=Ambrose |first1=Emma |last2=Mudde |first2=Cas |year=2015 |title=Canadian Multiculturalism and the Absence of the Far Right |journal=Nationalism and Ethnic Politics |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=213–236 |doi=10.1080/13537113.2015.1032033}}
-{{Cite news |last=Taub |first=Amanda |date=June 27, 2017 |title=Canada's Secret to Resisting the West's Populist Wave |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/27/world/canada/canadas-secret-to-resisting-the-wests-populist-wave.html |url-status=live |access-date=September 25, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170627090321/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/27/world/canada/canadas-secret-to-resisting-the-wests-populist-wave.html |archive-date=June 27, 2017}}
+|{{Cite news |last=Taub |first=Amanda |date=June 27, 2017 |title=Canada's Secret to Resisting the West's Populist Wave |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/27/world/canada/canadas-secret-to-resisting-the-wests-populist-wave.html |url-status=live |access-date=September 25, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170627090321/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/27/world/canada/canadas-secret-to-resisting-the-wests-populist-wave.html |archive-date=June 27, 2017}}
-{{cite web |last=Geddes |first=John |title=What's actually standing in the way of right-wing populism in Canada? |website=Macleans.ca |date=February 8, 2022 |url=https://www.macleans.ca/politics/ottawa/whats-actually-standing-in-the-way-of-right-wing-populism-in-canada/ |archive-date=October 31, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221031024415/https://www.macleans.ca/politics/ottawa/whats-actually-standing-in-the-way-of-right-wing-populism-in-canada/ |url-status=live}}
+|{{cite web |last=Geddes |first=John |title=What's actually standing in the way of right-wing populism in Canada? |website=Macleans.ca |date=February 8, 2022 |url=https://www.macleans.ca/politics/ottawa/whats-actually-standing-in-the-way-of-right-wing-populism-in-canada/ |archive-date=October 31, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221031024415/https://www.macleans.ca/politics/ottawa/whats-actually-standing-in-the-way-of-right-wing-populism-in-canada/ |url-status=live}}
-{{cite journal | last=Blake | first=Raymond B. | title=Locating the Right in Canadian Political History | journal=American Review of Canadian Studies | publisher=Informa UK Limited | volume=54 | issue=1 | date=Jan 2, 2024 | issn=0272-2011 | doi=10.1080/02722011.2024.2326264 | pages=1–8|quote=Social conservatives and the extreme right have had limited success designing the direction and policies of Canada’s right-wing political parties.}}</ref>
+|{{cite journal | last=Blake | first=Raymond B. | title=Locating the Right in Canadian Political History | journal=American Review of Canadian Studies | publisher=Informa UK Limited | volume=54 | issue=1 | date=Jan 2, 2024 | issn=0272-2011 | doi=10.1080/02722011.2024.2326264 | pages=1–8|quote=Social conservatives and the extreme right have had limited success designing the direction and policies of Canada’s right-wing political parties.}}}}</ref>
 Canada has a [[parliamentary system]] within the context of a [[constitutional monarchy]]—the [[monarchy of Canada]] being the foundation of the executive, [[legislative]], and [[judicial]] branches.<ref>{{multiref2
@@ Line 336: / Line 332: @@
 {{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/sovereignty |last=McWhinney |first=Edward Watson |title=Sovereignty |date=October 8, 2019 |encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia |archive-date=May 29, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529215957/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/sovereignty |url-status=live}}</ref>
-Each of the 338 [[Member of Parliament (Canada)|members of Parliament]] in the House of Commons is elected by simple plurality in an [[Electoral district (Canada)|electoral district]] or riding. The ''[[Constitution Act, 1982]]'', requires that no more than five years pass between elections, although the ''[[Canada Elections Act]]'' limits this to four years with a "fixed" election date in October; [[Elections in Canada|general elections]] still must be called by the governor general and can be triggered by either the advice of the prime minister or a lost [[confidence vote]] in the House.<ref>
+Each of the 338 [[Member of Parliament (Canada)|members of Parliament]] in the House of Commons is elected by simple plurality in an [[Electoral district (Canada)|electoral district]] or riding. The ''[[Constitution Act, 1982]]'', requires that no more than five years pass between elections, although the ''[[Canada Elections Act]]'' limits this to four years with a "fixed" election date in October; [[Elections in Canada|general elections]] still must be called by the governor general and can be triggered by either the advice of the prime minister or a lost [[confidence vote]] in the House.<ref>{{multiref2
-{{cite web |title=About Elections and Ridings |url=http://www.lop.parl.gc.ca/parlinfo/Compilations/ElectionsAndRidings.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224103929/http://www.lop.parl.gc.ca/parlinfo/Compilations/ElectionsAndRidings.aspx |archive-date=December 24, 2016 |access-date=September 3, 2016 |publisher=Library of Parliament}}
+|{{cite web |title=About Elections and Ridings |url=http://www.lop.parl.gc.ca/parlinfo/Compilations/ElectionsAndRidings.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224103929/http://www.lop.parl.gc.ca/parlinfo/Compilations/ElectionsAndRidings.aspx |archive-date=December 24, 2016 |access-date=September 3, 2016 |publisher=Library of Parliament}}
-| {{cite web |last1=O'Neal |first1=Brian |last2=Bédard |first2=Michel |last3=Spano |first3=Sebastian |date=April 11, 2011 |title=Government and Canada's 41st Parliament: Questions and Answers |url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/ResearchPublications/2011-37-e.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522071714/http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/ResearchPublications/2011-37-e.htm |archive-date=May 22, 2011 |publisher=[[Library of Parliament]]}}
+| {{cite web |last1=O'Neal |first1=Brian |last2=Bédard |first2=Michel |last3=Spano |first3=Sebastian |date=April 11, 2011 |title=Government and Canada's 41st Parliament: Questions and Answers |url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/ResearchPublications/2011-37-e.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522071714/http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/ResearchPublications/2011-37-e.htm |archive-date=May 22, 2011 |publisher=[[Library of Parliament]]}}}}</ref> The 105 members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, serve until age 75.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Griffiths |first1=Ann L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GytLtJacxY8C&pg=PA116 |title=Handbook of Federal Countries |last2=Nerenberg |first2=Karl |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7735-7047-4 |page=116}}</ref>
-}}</ref> The 105 members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, serve until age 75.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Griffiths |first1=Ann L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GytLtJacxY8C&pg=PA116 |title=Handbook of Federal Countries |last2=Nerenberg |first2=Karl |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7735-7047-4 |page=116}}</ref>
 [[Canadian federalism]] divides government responsibilities between the federal government and the 10 provinces. [[Legislative assemblies of Canadian provinces and territories|Provincial legislatures]] are [[unicameral]] and operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the House of Commons.<ref name="Montpetit">{{cite web |last1=Marleau |first1=Robert |last2=Montpetit |first2=Camille |title=House of Commons Procedure and Practice: Parliamentary Institutions |url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/MarleauMontpetit/DocumentViewer.aspx?DocId=1001&Lang=E&Print=2&Sec=Ch01&Seq=5 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110828112251/http://www.parl.gc.ca/MarleauMontpetit/DocumentViewer.aspx?DocId=1001&Lang=E&Print=2&Sec=Ch01&Seq=5 |archive-date=August 28, 2011 |access-date=May 23, 2011 |publisher=Queen's Printer}}</ref> Canada's three territories also have legislatures, but these are not sovereign, have fewer constitutional responsibilities than the provinces,<ref>{{cite web |year=2010 |title=Difference between Canadian Provinces and Territories |url=http://www.pco-bcp.gc.ca/aia/index.asp?lang=eng&page=provterr&doc=difference-eng.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151201135354/http://pco-bcp.gc.ca/aia/index.asp?lang=eng&page=provterr&doc=difference-eng.htm |archive-date=December 1, 2015 |access-date=November 23, 2015 |publisher=Intergovernmental Affairs Canada}}</ref> and differ structurally from their provincial counterparts.<ref>{{cite web |year=2008 |title=Differences from Provincial Governments |url=http://www.assembly.gov.nt.ca/visitors/what-consensus/differences-provincial-governments |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203044824/http://www.assembly.gov.nt.ca/visitors/what-consensus/differences-provincial-governments |archive-date=February 3, 2014 |access-date=January 30, 2014 |publisher=Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories}}</ref>
@@ Line 346: / Line 341: @@
 {{Main|Law of Canada}}
-The [[Constitution of Canada]] is the supreme law of the country and consists of written text and unwritten conventions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dodek |first=Adam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=86s7CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT13 |title=The Canadian Constitution |publisher=Dundurn – University of Ottawa Faculty of Law |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-4597-3505-7 |page=13}}</ref> The ''Constitution Act, 1867'' (known as the [[British North America Acts|British North America Act, 1867]] prior to 1982), affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Olive |first=Andrea |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bvw_CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA41 |title=The Canadian Environment in Political Context |date=2015 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-0871-9 |pages=41–42}}</ref> The ''Statute of Westminster, 1931'', granted full autonomy, and the ''Constitution Act, 1982'', ended all legislative ties to Britain, as well as adding a constitutional amending formula and the ''Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms''.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bhagwan |first1=Vishnoo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YatgyeA5R4sC&pg=PA550 |title=World Constitutions |last2=Vidya |first2=Bhushan |publisher=Sterling Publishers |year=2004 |isbn=978-81-207-1937-8 |pages=549–550}}</ref> The ''Charter'' guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be overridden by any government; a [[Section 33 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms|notwithstanding clause]] allows Parliament and the provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the ''Charter'' for a period of five years.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bakan |first1=Joel |title=Canadian Constitutional Law |last2=Elliot |first2=Robin M |publisher=Emond Montgomery Publications |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-55239-085-6 |pages=3–8, 683–687, 699}}</ref>
+The [[Constitution of Canada]] is the supreme law of the country and consists of written text and unwritten conventions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dodek |first=Adam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=86s7CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT13 |title=The Canadian Constitution |publisher=Dundurn – University of Ottawa Faculty of Law |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-4597-3505-7 |page=13}}</ref> The ''Constitution Act, 1867'' (known as the [[British North America Acts|British North America Act, 1867]] prior to 1982), affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Olive |first=Andrea |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bvw_CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA41 |title=The Canadian Environment in Political Context |date=2015 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-0871-9 |pages=41–42}}</ref> The ''Statute of Westminster, 1931'', granted full autonomy, and the ''Constitution Act, 1982'', ended all legislative ties to Britain, as well as adding a constitutional amending formula and the ''Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms''.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bhagwan |first1=Vishnoo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YatgyeA5R4sC&pg=PA550 |title=World Constitutions |last2=Vidya |first2=Bhushan |publisher=Sterling Publishers |year=2004 |isbn=978-81-207-1937-8 |pages=549–550}}</ref> The ''Charter'' guarantees basic [[Human rights in Canada|rights and freedoms]] that usually cannot be overridden by any government; a [[Section 33 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms|notwithstanding clause]] allows Parliament and the provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the ''Charter'' for a period of five years.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bakan |first1=Joel |title=Canadian Constitutional Law |last2=Elliot |first2=Robin M |publisher=Emond Montgomery Publications |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-55239-085-6 |pages=3–8, 683–687, 699}}</ref>
 [[File:Supreme court of Canada in summer.jpg|thumb|alt=Supreme Court of Canada building|The [[Supreme Court of Canada]] in Ottawa, west of Parliament Hill]]
 [[Court system of Canada|Canada's judiciary]] interprets laws and has the power to strike down acts of Parliament that violate the constitution. The [[Supreme Court of Canada]] is the highest court, final arbiter, and has been led since 2017 by [[Richard Wagner (judge)|Richard Wagner]], the [[Chief Justice of Canada]].<ref>{{cite web |date=December 18, 2017 |title=Current and Former Chief Justices |url=http://www.scc-csc.ca/judges-juges/cfcju-jucp-eng.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20180116062534/http://www.scc-csc.ca/judges-juges/cfcju-jucp-eng.aspx |archive-date=January 16, 2018 |publisher=Supreme Court of Canada}}</ref> The governor general appoints the court's nine members on the advice of the prime minister and [[Minister of Justice and Attorney General of Canada|minister of justice]].<ref name="UCP-2018">{{cite book |title=Law, Politics, and the Judicial Process in Canada, 4th Edition |publisher=University of Calgary Press |edition=4 |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-55238-990-4 |jstor=j.ctv56fggn |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv56fggn |pages=117–172 |doi=10.2307/j.ctv56fggn}}</ref> The federal Cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts in the provincial and territorial jurisdictions.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Yates |first1=Richard |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontola00yate/page/93 |title=Introduction to Law in Canada |last2=Bain |first2=Penny |last3=Yates |first3=Ruth |publisher=Prentice Hall Allyn and Bacon Canada |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-13-792862-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontola00yate/page/93 93]}}</ref>
-[[Common law]] prevails everywhere except Quebec, where [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] predominates.<ref>{{cite book |first=Julian |last=Hermida |title=Criminal Law in Canada |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MT9sDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT10 |date=May 9, 2018 |publisher=Kluwer Law International B.V. |isbn=978-90-411-9627-9 |pages=10–}}</ref> [[Criminal law of Canada|Criminal law]] is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sworden |first=Philip James |title=An introduction to Canadian law |publisher=Emond Montgomery Publications |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-55239-145-7 |pages=22, 150}}</ref> Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is officially a provincial responsibility, conducted by provincial and municipal police forces.<ref>{{cite web |year=2009 |title=Who we are |url=https://www.opp.ca/index.php?id=123 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826073944/http://www.opp.ca/index.php?id=123 |archive-date=August 26, 2016 |access-date=October 24, 2012 |publisher=Ontario Provincial Police}}</ref> In most rural and some urban areas, policing responsibilities are contracted to the federal [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]].<ref name="Sullivan-2005">{{cite book |last=Sullivan |first=L.E. |title=Encyclopedia of Law Enforcement |publisher=SAGE Publications |issue=v. 3 |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7619-2649-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L145DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA995 |page=995}}</ref>
+[[Law of Canada#Common law|Common law]] prevails everywhere except [[Quebec law|Quebec, where civil law]] predominates.<ref>{{cite book |first=Julian |last=Hermida |title=Criminal Law in Canada |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MT9sDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT10 |date=May 9, 2018 |publisher=Kluwer Law International B.V. |isbn=978-90-411-9627-9 |pages=10–}}</ref> [[Criminal law of Canada|Criminal law]] is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sworden |first=Philip James |title=An introduction to Canadian law |publisher=Emond Montgomery Publications |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-55239-145-7 |pages=22, 150}}</ref> Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is officially a provincial responsibility, conducted by provincial and municipal police forces.<ref>{{cite web |year=2009 |title=Who we are |url=https://www.opp.ca/index.php?id=123 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826073944/http://www.opp.ca/index.php?id=123 |archive-date=August 26, 2016 |access-date=October 24, 2012 |publisher=Ontario Provincial Police}}</ref> In most rural and some urban areas, policing responsibilities are contracted to the federal [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]].<ref name="Sullivan-2005">{{cite book |last=Sullivan |first=L.E. |title=Encyclopedia of Law Enforcement |publisher=SAGE Publications |issue=v. 3 |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7619-2649-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L145DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA995 |page=995}}</ref>
 [[Canadian Aboriginal law]] provides certain [[Aboriginal land title in Canada|constitutionally recognized rights to land]] and traditional practices for Indigenous groups in Canada.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Reynolds |first=Jim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dKpaDwAAQBAJ |title=Aboriginal Peoples and the Law: A Critical Introduction |publisher=UBC Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-7748-8023-7}}</ref> Various treaties and case laws were established to mediate relations between Europeans and many Indigenous peoples.<ref name="FN">{{Cite report |url=http://publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection-R/LoPBdP/PRB-e/PRB0604-e.pdf |title=Aboriginal roundtable on Kelowna Accord: Aboriginal policy negotiations 2004–2006 |last=Patterson |first=Lisa Lynne |publisher=Parliamentary Information and Research Service, Library of Parliament |page=3 |access-date=October 23, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141126203243/http://publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection-R/LoPBdP/PRB-e/PRB0604-e.pdf |series=1 |year=2004 |url-status=live |archive-date=November 26, 2014}}</ref> The role of Aboriginal law and the rights they support were reaffirmed by [[section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982]].<ref name="FN" /> These rights may include provision of services, such as healthcare through the [[Indian Health Transfer Policy]], and exemption from taxation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Madison |first=Gary Brent |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3AgrpoLkscMC&pg=PA128 |title=Is There a Canadian Philosophy?: Reflections on the Canadian Identity |publisher=[[University of Ottawa Press]] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-7766-0514-2 |page=128}}</ref>
@@ Line 361: / Line 356: @@
 [[File:Political map of Canada.svg|upright=1.3|thumb|alt=Labelled map of Canada detailing its provinces and territories|Political map of Canada showing its [[Provinces and territories of Canada|10 provinces and 3 territories<ref name="Anon. y967">{{cite web |title=Canada Political Divisions |url=https://ftp.maps.canada.ca/pub/nrcan_rncan/Geographical-maps_Carte-geographique/SmallScaleReferenceMaps/english_canada/colour/Canada.pdf |publisher=Natural Resources Canada |access-date=October 16, 2023 |archive-date=April 15, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230415114431/https://ftp.maps.canada.ca/pub/nrcan_rncan/Geographical-maps_Carte-geographique/SmallScaleReferenceMaps/english_canada/colour/Canada.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>]]|link=Provinces and territories of Canada]]
-Canada is a federation composed of 10 [[federated states]], called provinces, and three [[federal territories]]. These may be grouped into [[List of regions of Canada|four main regions]]: [[Western Canada]], [[Central Canada]], [[Atlantic Canada]], and [[Northern Canada]] (''[[Eastern Canada]]'' refers to Central Canada and Atlantic Canada together).<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hamel |first1=Pierre |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rB-NBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA81 |title=Suburban Governance: A Global View |last2=Keil |first2=Roger |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-4426-6357-2 |page=81}}</ref> Provinces and territories have responsibility for social programs such as [[Healthcare in Canada|healthcare]], [[Education in Canada|education]], and [[Social programs in Canada|welfare]],<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Doern |first1=G. Bruce |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FBXaFRZtKJsC&pg=RA1-PA1976 |title=Canadian Public Budgeting in the Age of Crises: Shifting Budgetary Domains and Temporal Budgeting |last2=Maslove |first2=Allan M. |last3=Prince |first3=Michael J. |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-7735-8853-0 |page=1}}</ref> as well as administration of justice (but not criminal law). Although the provinces collect more revenue than the federal government, [[equalization payments]] are made by the federal government to ensure reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Clemens |first1=Jason |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yc6RakXxLy0C&pg=PA8 |title=Beyond Equalization: Examining Fiscal Transfers in a Broader Context |last2=Veldhuis |first2=Niels |publisher=[[Fraser Institute]] |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-88975-215-3 |page=8}}</ref>
+Canada is a federation composed of 10 [[federated states]], called provinces, and three [[federal territories]]. These may be grouped into [[List of regions of Canada|four main regions]]: [[Western Canada]], [[Central Canada]], [[Atlantic Canada]], and [[Northern Canada]] (''[[Eastern Canada]]'' refers to Central Canada and Atlantic Canada together).<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hamel |first1=Pierre |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rB-NBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA81 |title=Suburban Governance: A Global View |last2=Keil |first2=Roger |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-4426-6357-2 |page=81}}</ref> Provinces and territories have responsibility for social programs such as [[Healthcare in Canada|healthcare]], [[Education in Canada|education]], and [[Social programs in Canada|social programs]],<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Doern |first1=G. Bruce |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FBXaFRZtKJsC&pg=RA1-PA1976 |title=Canadian Public Budgeting in the Age of Crises: Shifting Budgetary Domains and Temporal Budgeting |last2=Maslove |first2=Allan M. |last3=Prince |first3=Michael J. |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-7735-8853-0 |page=1}}</ref> as well as administration of justice (but not criminal law). Although the provinces collect more revenue than the federal government, [[equalization payments]] are made by the federal government to ensure reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Clemens |first1=Jason |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yc6RakXxLy0C&pg=PA8 |title=Beyond Equalization: Examining Fiscal Transfers in a Broader Context |last2=Veldhuis |first2=Niels |publisher=[[Fraser Institute]] |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-88975-215-3 |page=8}}</ref>
 The major difference between a Canadian province and a territory is that provinces receive their sovereignty from the Crown<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jackson |first=Michael D. |title=The Canadian Monarchy in Saskatchewan |publisher=Queen's Printer for Saskatchewan |year=1990 |page=14 |edition=2nd}}</ref> and power and authority from the ''Constitution Act, 1867'', whereas territorial governments have powers delegated to them by the [[Parliament of Canada]]<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Oliver |first1=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ulsvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA498 |title=The Oxford Handbook of the Canadian Constitution |last2=Macklem |first2=Patrick |last3=Des Rosiers |first3=Nathalie |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-19-066482-4 |pages=498–499}}</ref> and the commissioners represent the [[King-in-Council|King in his federal Council]],<ref>{{citation |url=https://www.commissioner.gov.nt.ca/en/role-commissioner |author=Commissioner of the Northwest Territories |title=Role of the Commissioner |publisher=Government of Northwest Territories |access-date=March 8, 2023 |archive-date=March 8, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230308194120/https://www.commissioner.gov.nt.ca/en/role-commissioner |url-status=live}}</ref> rather than the monarch directly. The powers flowing from the ''Constitution Act, 1867'', are divided between the federal government and the provincial governments to exercise exclusively<ref>{{Cite book |last=Meligrana |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uL9hLqPSdi0C&pg=PA75 |title=Redrawing Local Government Boundaries: An International Study of Politics, Procedures, and Decisions |publisher=UBC Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-7748-0934-4 |page=75}}</ref> and any changes to that arrangement require a [[Amendments to the Constitution of Canada|constitutional amendment]], while changes to the roles and powers of the territories may be performed unilaterally by the Parliament of Canada.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nicholson |first=Norman L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ek7cloNk3E8C&pg=PA174 |title=The boundaries of the Canadian Confederation |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-7705-1742-7 |pages=174–175}}</ref>
@@ Line 377: / Line 372: @@
 | {{cite book |last1=Sens |first1=Allen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LLc8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA6 |title=Global Politics |last2=Stoett |first2=Peter |publisher=Nelson Education |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-17-648249-7 |edition=5th |page=6}}
 | {{cite book | last=McKercher | first=B.J.C. | title=Routledge Handbook of Diplomacy and Statecraft | publisher=Taylor & Francis | series=Routledge handbooks | year=2012 | isbn=978-1-136-66437-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dGypAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA131 | access-date=June 17, 2024 | page=131}}
-}}</ref> Canada is known for its commitment to international peace and security, as well as being a mediator in conflicts,<ref name="o407">{{cite book |last1=Courtney |first1=J. |last2=Courtney |first2=J.C. |last3=Smith |first3=D. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Canadian Politics |publisher=OUP USA |series=Oxford Handbooks in Politics & International Relations |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-533535-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5KomEXgxvMcC&pg=PA363 |page=363}}</ref> and for providing [[Aid|aid to developing countries]] representing 0.37 percent of its [[gross national income]] (GNP).<ref>
+}}</ref> Canada is known for its commitment to international peace and security, as well as being a mediator in conflicts,<ref name="o407">{{cite book |last1=Courtney |first1=J. |last2=Courtney |first2=J.C. |last3=Smith |first3=D. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Canadian Politics |publisher=OUP USA |series=Oxford Handbooks in Politics & International Relations |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-533535-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5KomEXgxvMcC&pg=PA363 |page=363}}</ref> and for providing [[Aid|aid to developing countries]].<ref>
 {{multiref2
 |{{cite web |title=Development Co-operation Profiles – Canada |website=OECD iLibrary |url=https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/aa7e3298-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/aa7e3298-en |access-date=May 28, 2024|archive-date=May 28, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240528044344/https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/aa7e3298-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/aa7e3298-en |url-status=live}}
+|{{cite journal | last=Webster | first=Craig | title=Canada's Human Rights Policy and ITS Impact on Foreign Assistance Allocation | journal=Peace Research | publisher=Canadian Mennonite University | volume=32 | issue=4 | year=2000 | issn=0008-4697 | jstor=23608002 | pages=85–97 | url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/23608002 | access-date=2024-10-29}}}}</ref>
-| {{cite web |title=Report to parliament on the Government of Canada's international assistance 2021-2022 |website=GAC |date=May 15, 2023 |url=https://www.international.gc.ca/transparency-transparence/international-assistance-report-rapport-aide-internationale/2021-2022-toc-tdm.aspx?lang=eng |access-date=May 29, 2024|archive-date=May 29, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240529014333/https://www.international.gc.ca/transparency-transparence/international-assistance-report-rapport-aide-internationale/2021-2022-toc-tdm.aspx?lang=eng |url-status=live}}
-}}</ref>
 [[Canada–United States relations|Canada and the United States]] have a long and complex relationship;<ref>{{multiref2
@@ Line 424: / Line 418: @@
 }}</ref> with the world's [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|ninth-largest economy]] {{As of|2023|lc=y}}, and a [[nominal GDP]] of approximately {{US$|2.221&nbsp;trillion|link=yes}}.<ref>{{cite web |date=April 2, 2019 |title=World Economic Outlook Database |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/April/weo-report?c=156,&s=NGDP_RPCH,NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPRPPPPC,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2015&ey=2026&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |archive-date=September 22, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922140957/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/April/weo-report?c=156,&s=NGDP_RPCH,NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPRPPPPC,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2015&ey=2026&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |url-status=live}}</ref> It is one of the world's largest [[trading nation]]s, with a highly [[globalized]] economy.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://unctad.org/topic/trade-analysis/chart-10-may-2021 |title=Evolution of the world's 25 top trading nations – Share of global exports of goods (%), 1978–2020 |publisher=[[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development]] |archive-date=July 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220715130020/https://unctad.org/topic/trade-analysis/chart-10-may-2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2021, Canadian trade in goods and services reached $2.016&nbsp;trillion.<ref name="econ">{{cite journal |year=2021 |title=U.S.-Canada Trade Facts |url=https://ustr.gov/countries-regions/americas/canada |url-status=live |journal=Canada's State of Trade |edition=20 |publisher=Global Affairs Canada |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220417130737/https://ustr.gov/countries-regions/americas/canada |archive-date=April 17, 2022}} [https://www.international.gc.ca/gac-amc/assets/pdfs/publications/State-of-Trade-2019_eng.pdf PDF version]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191003053553/https://www.international.gc.ca/gac-amc/assets/pdfs/publications/State-of-Trade-2019_eng.pdf|date=October 3, 2019}}.</ref> Canada's exports totalled over $637&nbsp;billion, while its imported goods were worth over $631&nbsp;billion, of which approximately $391&nbsp;billion originated from the United States.<ref name="econ" /> In 2018, Canada had a [[trade deficit]] in goods of $22&nbsp;billion and a trade deficit in services of $25&nbsp;billion.<ref name="econ" /> The [[Toronto Stock Exchange]] is the ninth-largest stock exchange in the world by [[market capitalization]], listing over 1,500 companies with a combined market capitalization of over {{US$|2&nbsp;trillion}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Monthly Reports |url=https://www.world-exchanges.org/our-work/statistics |publisher=World Federation of Exchanges |archive-date=February 18, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218202537/https://www.world-exchanges.org/our-work/statistics |url-status=live}}{{as of|2018|November|lc=y}}</ref>
-The [[Bank of Canada]] is the [[central bank]] of the country.<ref name="Watts-1993">{{cite book |last=Watts |first=George S. |title=Bank of Canada/La Banque du Canada: Origines et premieres annees/Origins and Early History |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-88629-182-2 |jstor=j.ctt9qf36m |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt9qf36m}}</ref> The [[Minister of Finance (Canada)|minister of finance]] and [[Minister of Innovation, Science and Industry|minister of innovation, science, and industry]] use data from [[Statistics Canada]] to enable financial planning and develop economic policy.<ref>{{cite web |year=2014 |title=About |url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/about-apercu/mandate-mandat-eng.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150115144515/http://statcan.gc.ca/about-apercu/mandate-mandat-eng.htm |archive-date=January 15, 2015 |access-date=March 8, 2017 |publisher=Statistics Canada}}</ref> Canada has a strong [[cooperative banking]] sector, with the world's highest per-capita membership in [[credit union]]s.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kobrak |first1=Christopher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yw9aDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA220 |title=From Wall Street to Bay Street: The Origins and Evolution of American and Canadian Finance |last2=Martin |first2=Joe |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-4426-1625-7 |page=220}}</ref> It ranks low in the [[Corruption Perceptions Index]] (14th in 2023)<ref name="cpi">{{cite web |title=Corruption Perceptions Index (latest) |date=January 31, 2023 |url=https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi |publisher=[[Transparency International]] |archive-date=July 24, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724013412/http://cpi.transparency.org/cpi2012/results/ |url-status=live}}</ref> and "is widely regarded as among the least corrupt countries of the world".<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rotberg |first1=Robert I. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ujOoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT12 |title=Canada's Corruption at Home and Abroad |last2=Carment |first2=David |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-351-57924-7 |page=12}}</ref> It ranks high in the [[Global Competitiveness Report]] (14th in 2019)<ref name="rank 2019">{{Cite web |title=The Global Competitiveness Report 2019 |url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_TheGlobalCompetitivenessReport2019.pdf |access-date=October 21, 2022 |archive-date=October 9, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191009004538/http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_TheGlobalCompetitivenessReport2019.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Global Innovation Index]] (14th in 2024).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2024/assets/67729/2000%20Global%20Innovation%20Index%202024_WEB2.pdf|title=Global Innovation Index 2024. Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship|publisher=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]]|year=2024|isbn=978-92-805-3681-2|doi= 10.34667/tind.50062|page=18 |author1=World Intellectual Property Organization |last2=Dutta |first2=Soumitra |last3=Lanvin |first3=Bruno |last4=Rivera León |first4=Lorena |last5=Wunsch-Vincent |first5=Sacha}}</ref> Canada's economy ranks above most [[Western nations]] on [[the Heritage Foundation]]'s [[Index of Economic Freedom]]<ref>{{cite web |year=2020 |title=Index of Economic Freedom |url=https://www.heritage.org/index/country/canada |access-date=May 8, 2021 |publisher=[[The Heritage Foundation]] |archive-date=April 20, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420111447/https://www.heritage.org/index/country/canada |url-status=live}}</ref> and experiences a relatively low level of [[Economic inequality|income disparity]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.credit-suisse.com/corporate/en/research/research-institute/global-wealth-report.html |publisher=[[Credit Suisse]] |title=Global Wealth Report |date=October 2018 |first1=Anthony |last1=Shorrocks |first2=Jim |last2=Davies |first3=Rodrigo |last3=Lluberas |archive-date=July 18, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170718173830/https://www.credit-suisse.com/corporate/en/research/research-institute/global-wealth-report.html |url-status=live}}</ref> The country's average household [[disposable income]] per capita is "well above" the OECD average.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/canada/#:~:text=In%20Canada%2C%20the%20average%20household%20net%20adjusted%20disposable%20income%20per,average%20of%20USD%2030%20490. |title=Canada |work=OECD Better Life Index |date=2021 |archive-date=March 5, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305123737/https://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/canada/#:~:text=In%20Canada%2C%20the%20average%20household%20net%20adjusted%20disposable%20income%20per,average%20of%20USD%2030%20490. |url-status=live}}</ref> Canada ranks among the lowest of the most developed countries for [[Affordable housing in Canada|housing affordability]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.oecd.org/price/housing-prices.htm |title=Prices - Housing prices |publisher=OECD |access-date=August 14, 2022 |archive-date=August 11, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220811142758/https://data.oecd.org/price/housing-prices.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> and [[foreign direct investment]].<ref>{{multiref2
+The [[Bank of Canada]] is the [[central bank]] of the country.<ref name="Watts-1993">{{cite book |last=Watts |first=George S. |title=Bank of Canada/La Banque du Canada: Origines et premieres annees/Origins and Early History |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-88629-182-2 |jstor=j.ctt9qf36m |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt9qf36m}}</ref> The [[Minister of Finance (Canada)|minister of finance]] and [[Minister of Innovation, Science and Industry|minister of innovation, science, and industry]] use data from [[Statistics Canada]] to enable financial planning and develop economic policy.<ref>{{cite web |year=2014 |title=About |url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/about-apercu/mandate-mandat-eng.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150115144515/http://statcan.gc.ca/about-apercu/mandate-mandat-eng.htm |archive-date=January 15, 2015 |access-date=March 8, 2017 |publisher=Statistics Canada}}</ref> Canada has a strong [[cooperative banking]] sector, with the world's highest per-capita membership in [[credit union]]s.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kobrak |first1=Christopher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yw9aDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA220 |title=From Wall Street to Bay Street: The Origins and Evolution of American and Canadian Finance |last2=Martin |first2=Joe |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-4426-1625-7 |page=220}}</ref> It ranks low in the [[Corruption Perceptions Index]] (14th in 2023)<ref name="cpi">{{cite web |title=Corruption Perceptions Index (latest) |date=January 31, 2023 |url=https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi |publisher=[[Transparency International]] |archive-date=July 24, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724013412/http://cpi.transparency.org/cpi2012/results/ |url-status=live}}</ref> and "is widely regarded as among the least corrupt countries of the world".<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rotberg |first1=Robert I. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ujOoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT12 |title=Canada's Corruption at Home and Abroad |last2=Carment |first2=David |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-351-57924-7 |page=12}}</ref> It ranks high in the [[Global Competitiveness Report]] (19th in 2024)<ref name="x737">{{cite web | title=World Competitiveness Center | website=IMD business school for management and leadership courses | date=2024-06-10 | url=https://www.imd.org/centers/wcc/world-competitiveness-center/rankings/world-competitiveness-ranking/rankings/wcr-rankings/#_tab_Rank | access-date=2024-11-15}}</ref> and [[Global Innovation Index]] (14th in 2024).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2024/assets/67729/2000%20Global%20Innovation%20Index%202024_WEB2.pdf|title=Global Innovation Index 2024. Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship|publisher=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]]|year=2024|isbn=978-92-805-3681-2|doi= 10.34667/tind.50062|page=18 |author1=World Intellectual Property Organization |last2=Dutta |first2=Soumitra |last3=Lanvin |first3=Bruno |last4=Rivera León |first4=Lorena |last5=Wunsch-Vincent |first5=Sacha}}</ref> Canada's economy ranks above most [[Western nations]] on [[the Heritage Foundation]]'s [[Index of Economic Freedom]]<ref>{{cite web |year=2020 |title=Index of Economic Freedom |url=https://www.heritage.org/index/country/canada |access-date=May 8, 2021 |publisher=[[The Heritage Foundation]] |archive-date=April 20, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420111447/https://www.heritage.org/index/country/canada |url-status=live}}</ref> and experiences a relatively low level of [[Economic inequality|income disparity]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.credit-suisse.com/corporate/en/research/research-institute/global-wealth-report.html |publisher=[[Credit Suisse]] |title=Global Wealth Report |date=October 2018 |first1=Anthony |last1=Shorrocks |first2=Jim |last2=Davies |first3=Rodrigo |last3=Lluberas |archive-date=July 18, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170718173830/https://www.credit-suisse.com/corporate/en/research/research-institute/global-wealth-report.html |url-status=live}}</ref> The country's average household [[disposable income]] per capita is "well above" the OECD average.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/canada/#:~:text=In%20Canada%2C%20the%20average%20household%20net%20adjusted%20disposable%20income%20per,average%20of%20USD%2030%20490. |title=Canada |work=OECD Better Life Index |date=2021 |archive-date=March 5, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305123737/https://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/canada/#:~:text=In%20Canada%2C%20the%20average%20household%20net%20adjusted%20disposable%20income%20per,average%20of%20USD%2030%20490. |url-status=live}}</ref> Canada ranks among the lowest of the most developed countries for [[Affordable housing in Canada|housing affordability]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.oecd.org/price/housing-prices.htm |title=Prices - Housing prices |publisher=OECD |access-date=August 14, 2022 |archive-date=August 11, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220811142758/https://data.oecd.org/price/housing-prices.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> and [[foreign direct investment]].<ref>{{multiref2
 | {{cite journal |url=https://journalhosting.ucalgary.ca/index.php/sppp/article/view/72311/55149 |title=View of 2020 Tax Competitiveness Report: Canada's Investment Challenge |year=2021 |doi=10.11575/sppp.v14i1.72311 |last1=Mintz |first1=Jack |last2=Bazel |first2=Philip |journal=The School of Public Policy Publications |volume=14 |issue=1}}
 | {{cite web |title='Worst in the world': Here are all the rankings in which Canada is now last |website=National Post |date=August 11, 2022 |url=https://nationalpost.com/news/canada/worst-in-the-world-here-are-all-the-rankings-in-which-canada-is-now-last |archive-date=November 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130234013/https://nationalpost.com/news/canada/worst-in-the-world-here-are-all-the-rankings-in-which-canada-is-now-last |url-status=live}}
@@ Line 458: / Line 452: @@
 {{Main|Demographics of Canada|List of cities in Canada}}
-[[File:Population density statistics canada.gif|thumb|[[Population of Canada|Canada population]] density map (2014)<ref name="Statistics Canada 2015 l621">{{cite web |title=Section 4: Maps |website=Statistics Canada |date=February 11, 2015 |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/91-214-x/2015000/section04-eng.htm |access-date=July 23, 2023}}</ref>|upright=1.3]]
+[[File:Population density statistics canada.gif|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Population of Canada|Canada population]] density map (2014)<br>'''Top left:''' The [[Quebec City–Windsor Corridor]] is the most densely inhabited and heavily industrialized region.<ref name="Statistics Canada 2015 l621">{{cite web |title=Section 4: Maps |website=Statistics Canada |date=February 11, 2015 |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/91-214-x/2015000/section04-eng.htm |access-date=July 23, 2023}}</ref>]]
 The [[2021 Canadian census]] enumerated a [[Population of Canada by year|total population]] of 36,991,981, an increase of around 5.2 percent over the 2016 figure.<ref name="2021cen">{{cite web |last=Zimonjic |first=Peter |date=February 9, 2022 |title=Despite pandemic, Canada's population grows at fastest rate in G7: census |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/census-2021-release-population-cities-1.6344179 |work=CBC News}}</ref> It is estimated that Canada's population surpassed 40,000,000 in 2023.<ref name="Statistics Canada 2023 e538">{{cite web |title=Canada's population reaches 40{{nbsp}}million | website=Statistics Canada | date=June 16, 2023 | url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/en/subjects-start/population_and_demography/40-million |access-date=September 7, 2023}}</ref> The main drivers of population growth are [[Immigration to Canada|immigration]] and, to a lesser extent, natural growth.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Edmonston |first1=Barry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VVYOgvFPvBEC&pg=PA181 |title=The Changing Canadian Population |last2=Fong |first2=Eric |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-7735-3793-4 |page=181}}</ref> Canada has one of the highest per-capita immigration rates in the world,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zimmerman |first=Karla |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kv4nlSWLT8UC&pg=PA51 |title=Canada |publisher=[[Lonely Planet]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-74104-571-0 |edition=10th |page=51}}</ref> driven mainly by [[Economic impact of immigration to Canada|economic policy]] and [[Immigration categories (Canada)|family reunification]].<ref>{{multiref2
@@ Line 465: / Line 459: @@
 }}</ref> A record 405,000 immigrants were admitted in 2021.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sangani |first1=Priyanka |date=February 15, 2022 |title=Canada to take in 1.3{{nbsp}}million immigrants in 2022–24 |work=[[The Economic Times]] |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/world-news/canada-to-take-in-1-3-million-immigrants-in-2022-24/articleshow/89593324.cms?from=mdr |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220215120744/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/world-news/canada-to-take-in-1-3-million-immigrants-in-2022-24/articleshow/89593324.cms?from=mdr |archive-date=February 15, 2022}}</ref> Canada leads the world in [[Third country resettlement|refugee resettlement]]; it resettled more than 47,600 in 2022.<ref name="g225">{{cite web | last=Kim | first=Soo-Jung | title=UNHCR calls for concerted action as forced displacement hits new record in 2022 | website=UNHCR Canada | date=June 14, 2023 | url=https://www.unhcr.ca/news/unhcr-calls-for-concerted-action-as-forced-displacement-hits-new-record-in-2022/#:~:text=OTTAWA%2C%2014%20June%202023%20%E2%80%93%20Canada,UNHCR%2C%20the%20UN%20Refugee%20Agency. | access-date=July 4, 2024}}</ref> New immigrants settle mostly in [[List of the largest population centres in Canada|major urban areas]], such as Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Grubel |first=Herbert G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=48LOyfxYihoC&pg=PA5 |title=The Effects of Mass Immigration on Canadian Living Standards and Society |publisher=Fraser Institute |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-88975-246-7 |page=5}}</ref>
-Canada's population density, at {{convert|4.2|PD/km2}}, is among the lowest in the world.<ref name="2021cen" /> Canada spans latitudinally from the 83rd parallel north to the 41st parallel north and approximately 95&nbsp;percent of the population is found south of the [[55th parallel north|55th parallel]] north.<ref name="OECD2014">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_mjWAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA142 |title=OECD Environmental Performance Reviews OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: Canada 2004 |publisher=OECD |year=2014 |isbn=978-92-64-10778-6 |pages=142–}}</ref> About 80 percent of the population lives within {{convert|150|km|mi}} of the border with the contiguous United States.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Custred |first=Glynn |url=https://archive.org/details/immigrationpolic0000unse/page/96 |title=Immigration policy and the terrorist threat in Canada and the United States |publisher=Fraser Institute |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-88975-235-1 |editor-last=Moens |editor-first=Alexander |page=[https://archive.org/details/immigrationpolic0000unse/page/96 96] |chapter=Security Threats on America's Borders |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HmiqBgnkAXYC&pg=PA96}}</ref> Canada is highly urbanized, with over 80 percent of the population living in urban centres.<ref name="World Bank Open Data s787">{{cite web |title=World Bank Open Data |website=World Bank Open Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS?locations=CA&name_desc=true |language=la |access-date=August 15, 2023}}</ref>  The majority of Canadians (over 70&nbsp;percent ) live below the [[49th parallel north|49th parallel]], with 50 &nbsp;percent of Canadians living south of 45°42′ (45.7 degrees) north.<ref name="a715">{{cite web | last=Jacobs | first=Frank | title=Most Canadians live south of Seattle and other mental map surprises | website=Big Think | date=January 4, 2024 | url=https://bigthink.com/strange-maps/canadians-south-seattle-mental-map-surprise/ | access-date=October 19, 2024}}</ref> The most densely populated part of the country is the [[Quebec City–Windsor Corridor]] in Southern Quebec and Southern Ontario along the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River.<ref name="McMurryShepherd2004">{{Cite book |last1=McMurry |first1=Peter H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1giH-mvhhw8C&pg=PA391 |title=Particulate Matter Science for Policy Makers: A NARSTO Assessment |last2=Shepherd |first2=Marjorie F. |last3=Vickery |first3=James S. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-84287-7 |page=391}}</ref>
+Canada's population density, at {{convert|4.2|PD/km2}}, is among the lowest in the world,<ref name="2021cen" /> with approximately 95&nbsp;percent of the population is found south of the [[55th parallel north|55th parallel]] north.<ref name="OECD2014">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_mjWAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA142 |title=OECD Environmental Performance Reviews OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: Canada 2004 |publisher=OECD |year=2014 |isbn=978-92-64-10778-6 |pages=142–}}</ref> About 80 percent of the population lives within {{convert|150|km|mi}} of the border with the contiguous United States.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Custred |first=Glynn |url=https://archive.org/details/immigrationpolic0000unse/page/96 |title=Immigration policy and the terrorist threat in Canada and the United States |publisher=Fraser Institute |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-88975-235-1 |editor-last=Moens |editor-first=Alexander |page=[https://archive.org/details/immigrationpolic0000unse/page/96 96] |chapter=Security Threats on America's Borders |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HmiqBgnkAXYC&pg=PA96}}</ref> Canada is highly urbanized, with over 80 percent of the population living in urban centres.<ref name="World Bank Open Data s787">{{cite web |title=World Bank Open Data |website=World Bank Open Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS?locations=CA&name_desc=true |language=la |access-date=August 15, 2023}}</ref> The majority of Canadians (over 70&nbsp;percent ) live below the [[49th parallel north|49th parallel]], with 50&nbsp;percent of Canadians living south of 45°42′ (45.7 degrees) north.<ref name="a715">{{cite web | last=Jacobs | first=Frank | title=Most Canadians live south of Seattle and other mental map surprises | website=Big Think | date=January 4, 2024 | url=https://bigthink.com/strange-maps/canadians-south-seattle-mental-map-surprise/ | access-date=October 19, 2024}}</ref> The most densely populated part of the country is the [[Quebec City–Windsor Corridor]] in Southern Quebec and Southern Ontario along the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River.<ref name="McMurryShepherd2004">{{Cite book |last1=McMurry |first1=Peter H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1giH-mvhhw8C&pg=PA391 |title=Particulate Matter Science for Policy Makers: A NARSTO Assessment |last2=Shepherd |first2=Marjorie F. |last3=Vickery |first3=James S. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-84287-7 |page=391}}</ref>
 The majority of Canadians (81.1&nbsp;percent) live in family households, 12.1&nbsp;percent report living alone, and 6.8&nbsp;percent live with other relatives or unrelated persons.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |publisher=Statistics Canada |date=February 9, 2022 |title=Profile table, Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population – Canada [Country] |url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/index.cfm?Lang=E}}</ref> Fifty-one&nbsp;percent of households are couples with or without children, 8.7&nbsp;percent are single-parent households, 2.9&nbsp;percent are multigenerational households, and 29.3&nbsp;percent are single-person households.<ref name=":0" />
@@ Line 480: / Line 474: @@
 }}</ref>}} (accounting for 15.6&nbsp;percent of the population), followed by [[English Canadians|English]] (14.7&nbsp;percent), [[Irish Canadians|Irish]] (12.1&nbsp;percent), [[Scottish Canadians|Scottish]] (12.1&nbsp;percent), [[French Canadians|French]] (11.0&nbsp;percent), [[German Canadians|German]] (8.1&nbsp;percent), [[Chinese Canadians|Chinese]] (4.7&nbsp;percent), [[Italian Canadians|Italian]] (4.3&nbsp;percent), [[Indian Canadians|Indian]] (3.7&nbsp;percent), and [[Ukrainian Canadians|Ukrainian]] (3.5&nbsp;percent).<ref name="ethnicpopulationordered2021">{{Cite web |publisher=Statistics Canada |date=October 26, 2022 |title=Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population Profile table Canada [Country] Total – Ethnic or cultural origin for the population in private households – 25% sample data |url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?LANG=E&GENDERlist=1,2,3&STATISTIClist=1,4&DGUIDlist=2021A000011124&HEADERlist=31&SearchText=Canada}}</ref>
-Of the 36.3{{nbsp}}million people enumerated in 2021, approximately 25.4{{nbsp}}million reported being "[[White people|White]]", representing 69.8&nbsp;percent of the population.<ref name="Statistics Canada 2022a">{{cite web |title=The Daily — Indigenous population continues to grow and is much younger than the non-Indigenous population, although the pace of growth has slowed |publisher=Statistics Canada |date=September 21, 2022 |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/220921/dq220921a-eng.htm}}</ref> The Indigenous population representing 5&nbsp;percent or 1.8{{nbsp}}million individuals, grew by 9.4&nbsp;percent compared to the non-Indigenous population, which grew by 5.3&nbsp;percent from 2016 to 2021.<ref name="Statistics Canada 2022a" /> One out of every four Canadians or 26.5&nbsp;percent of the population belonged to a non-White and non-Indigenous [[visible minority]],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Visible Minority |encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia |date=October 27, 2022 |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/minorite-visible#:~:text=In%20the%202021%20census%2C%20around,as%20defined%20by%20Canadian%20law.}}</ref>{{efn|Indigenous peoples are not considered a visible minority in Statistics Canada calculations. Visible minorities are defined by Statistics Canada as "persons, other than aboriginal peoples, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour".<ref>{{cite web |date=July 25, 2008 |title=Classification of visible minority |url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/concepts/definitions/minority01-minorite01a-eng.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714060402/https://www.statcan.gc.ca/concepts/definitions/minority01-minorite01a-eng.htm |archive-date=July 14, 2011 |publisher=Statistics Canada}}</ref>}} the largest of which in 2021 were [[South Asian Canadians|South Asian]] (2.6{{nbsp}}million people; 7.1&nbsp;percent), Chinese (1.7{{nbsp}}million; 4.7&nbsp;percent), and [[Black Canadians|Black]] (1.5{{nbsp}}million; 4.3&nbsp;percent).<ref name="Statistics Canada 2022">{{cite web |title=The Daily — The Canadian census: A rich portrait of the country's religious and ethnocultural diversity |publisher=Statistics Canada |date=October 26, 2022 |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/221026/dq221026b-eng.htm}}</ref>
+Of the 36.3{{nbsp}}million people enumerated in 2021, approximately 24.5{{nbsp}}million reported being "[[White people|White]]", representing 67.4&nbsp;percent of the population.<ref name="Statistics Canada 2022a">{{cite web |title=Visible minority and population group by generation status: Canada, provinces and territories, census metropolitan areas and census agglomerations with parts |publisher=Statistics Canada |date=October 26, 2022 |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810032401}}</ref> The Indigenous population representing 5&nbsp;percent or 1.8{{nbsp}}million individuals, grew by 9.4&nbsp;percent compared to the non-Indigenous population, which grew by 5.3&nbsp;percent from 2016 to 2021.<ref name="Statistics Canada 2022a" /> One out of every four Canadians or 26.5&nbsp;percent of the population belonged to a non-White and non-Indigenous [[visible minority]],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Visible Minority |encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia |date=October 27, 2022 |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/minorite-visible#:~:text=In%20the%202021%20census%2C%20around,as%20defined%20by%20Canadian%20law.}}</ref>{{efn|Indigenous peoples are not considered a visible minority in Statistics Canada calculations. Visible minorities are defined by Statistics Canada as "persons, other than aboriginal peoples, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour".<ref>{{cite web |date=July 25, 2008 |title=Classification of visible minority |url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/concepts/definitions/minority01-minorite01a-eng.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714060402/https://www.statcan.gc.ca/concepts/definitions/minority01-minorite01a-eng.htm |archive-date=July 14, 2011 |publisher=Statistics Canada}}</ref>}} the largest of which in 2021 were [[South Asian Canadians|South Asian]] (2.6{{nbsp}}million people; 7.1&nbsp;percent), Chinese (1.7{{nbsp}}million; 4.7&nbsp;percent), and [[Black Canadians|Black]] (1.5{{nbsp}}million; 4.3&nbsp;percent).<ref name="Statistics Canada 2022">{{cite web |title=The Daily — The Canadian census: A rich portrait of the country's religious and ethnocultural diversity |publisher=Statistics Canada |date=October 26, 2022 |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/221026/dq221026b-eng.htm}}</ref>
 Between 2011 and 2016, the visible minority population rose by 18.4&nbsp;percent.<ref>{{cite web |date=February 8, 2017 |title=Census Profile, 2016 Census |url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=01&Geo2=PR&Code2=01&Data=Count&SearchText=canada&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&TABID=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171015095154/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=01&Geo2=PR&Code2=01&Data=Count&SearchText=Canada&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&TABID=1 |archive-date=October 15, 2017 |publisher=Statistics Canada}}</ref> In 1961, about 300,000 people, less than two percent of Canada's population, were members of visible minority groups.<ref>{{cite web |last=Pendakur |first=Krishna |title=Visible Minorities and Aboriginal Peoples in Vancouver's Labour Market |url=http://www.rhdcc-hrsdc.gc.ca/eng/labour/equality/racism/racism_free_init/pendakur.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516021011/http://www.rhdcc-hrsdc.gc.ca/eng/labour/equality/racism/racism_free_init/pendakur.shtml |archive-date=May 16, 2011 |access-date=June 30, 2014 |publisher=Simon Fraser University}}</ref> The 2021 census indicated that 8.3{{Nbsp}}million people, or almost one-quarter (23.0&nbsp;percent) of the population, reported themselves as being or having been a [[Permanent residency in Canada|landed immigrant or permanent resident]] in Canada—above the [[1921 Canadian census|1921 census]] previous record of 22.3&nbsp;percent.<ref name="Statistics Canada 2022b">{{cite web |title=The Daily — Immigrants make up the largest share of the population in over 150 years and continue to shape who we are as Canadians |publisher=Statistics Canada |date=October 26, 2022 |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/221026/dq221026a-eng.htm}}</ref> In 2021, India, China, and the Philippines were the top three countries of origin for immigrants moving to Canada.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/publications-manuals/annual-report-parliament-immigration-2021.html#annex2 |title=2021 Annual Report to Parliament on Immigration |date=March 15, 2022 |publisher=[[Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada]]}}</ref>
@@ Line 488: / Line 482: @@
 [[File:Bilinguisme au Canada-fr.svg|upright=1.3|thumb|alt=Map of Canada with English speakers and French speakers at a percentage|Approximately 98&nbsp;percent of Canadians can speak either or [[Official bilingualism in Canada|both English and French]]:<ref>{{cite web |title=2006 Census: The Evolving Linguistic Portrait, 2006 Census: Highlights |url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/as-sa/97-555/p1-eng.cfm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429013140/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/as-sa/97-555/p1-eng.cfm |archive-date=April 29, 2011 |access-date=October 12, 2010 |publisher=[[Statistics Canada]], {{Text|Dated 2006}}
 }}</ref>{{resizediv|95%|{{Legend|#FFE400|English – 57%}}{{Legend|#D8A820|English and French – 16% ([[Bilingual belt]]s)}}{{Legend|#B07400|French – 21%}}{{Legend|#F5F5DC|Sparsely populated area (&lt; 0.4 persons per km<sup>2</sup>)}}}}]]
-A multitude of languages are used by Canadians, with [[Canadian English|English]] and [[Canadian French|French]] (the [[official language]]s) being the [[First language|mother tongues]] of approximately 54&nbsp;percent and 19&nbsp;percent of Canadians, respectively.<ref name=":0" />  [[Official bilingualism in Canada|Canada's official bilingualism policies]] give citizens the right to receive federal government services in either English or French with official-[[Minority language|language minorities]] guaranteed their own schools in all provinces and territories.<ref>{{cite web |date=June 16, 2009 |title=Official Languages and You |url=http://www.ocol-clo.gc.ca/html/faq1_e.php |publisher=[[Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages]] |access-date=September 10, 2011 |archive-date=October 27, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091027121057/http://www.ocol-clo.gc.ca/html/faq1_e.php |url-status=dead}}</ref>
+A multitude of languages are used by Canadians, with [[Canadian English|English]] and [[Canadian French|French]] (the [[official language]]s) being the [[First language|mother tongues]] of approximately 54&nbsp;percent and 19&nbsp;percent of Canadians, respectively.<ref name=":0" /> [[Official bilingualism in Canada|Canada's official bilingualism policies]] give citizens the right to receive federal government services in either English or French with official-[[Minority language|language minorities]] guaranteed their own schools in all provinces and territories.<ref>{{cite web |date=June 16, 2009 |title=Official Languages and You |url=http://www.ocol-clo.gc.ca/html/faq1_e.php |publisher=[[Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages]] |access-date=September 10, 2011 |archive-date=October 27, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091027121057/http://www.ocol-clo.gc.ca/html/faq1_e.php |url-status=dead}}</ref>
 Quebec's 1974 ''[[Official Language Act (Quebec)|Official Language Act]]'' established French as the only official language of the province.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bourhis |first1=Richard Y |last2=Montaruli |first2=Elisa |last3=Amiot |first3=Catherine E |date=May 2007 |title=Language planning and French-English bilingual communication: Montreal field studies from 1977 to 1997 |journal=[[International Journal of the Sociology of Language]] |issue=185 |pages=187–224 |doi=10.1515/IJSL.2007.031}}</ref> Although more than 82 percent of French-speaking Canadians live in Quebec, there are substantial [[Francophone]] populations in [[Demographics of New Brunswick|New Brunswick]], [[Franco-Albertans|Alberta]], and [[Franco-Manitoban|Manitoba]], with [[Franco-Ontarian|Ontario]] having the largest French-speaking population outside Quebec.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Webber |first=Jeremy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f357BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA214 |title=The Constitution of Canada: A Contextual Analysis |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]] |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-78225-631-1 |page=214}}</ref> New Brunswick, the only officially bilingual province, has an [[Acadian French]] minority constituting 33 percent of the population.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Auer |first=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2_aPmMkzK_AC&pg=PA387 |title=Language and Space: An International Handbook of Linguistic Variation. Theories and methods |publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-3-11-018002-2 |page=387}}</ref> There are also clusters of Acadians in southwestern Nova Scotia, on Cape Breton Island, and in central and western Prince Edward Island.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hayday |first=Matthew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3D6LPBGT59kC&pg=PA49 |title=Bilingual Today, United Tomorrow: Official Languages in Education and Canadian Federalism |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7735-2960-1 |page=49}}</ref>
@@ Line 550: / Line 544: @@
 {{Main|Culture of Canada}}
-[[File:Statue outside Union Station.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Monument to Multiculturalism]]'' by Francesco Pirelli, in Toronto<ref name="Kuitenbrouwer 2010 g035">{{cite web |last=Kuitenbrouwer |first=Peter |title=Where is the Monument to Multiculturalism? |website=National Post |date=August 19, 2010 |url=https://nationalpost.com/posted-toronto/where-is-the-monument-to-multiculturalism |access-date=January 11, 2024}}</ref>]]
+[[File:WLM-CA-2018-Toronto-Union Station-9296.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Monument to Multiculturalism]]'' by Francesco Pirelli, in Toronto<ref name="Kuitenbrouwer 2010 g035">{{cite web |last=Kuitenbrouwer |first=Peter |title=Where is the Monument to Multiculturalism? |website=National Post |date=August 19, 2010 |url=https://nationalpost.com/posted-toronto/where-is-the-monument-to-multiculturalism |access-date=January 11, 2024}}</ref>]]
-Historically, Canada has been influenced by [[Culture of the United Kingdom|British]], [[French culture|French]], and Indigenous cultures and traditions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Magocsi |first=Paul R |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GkAuYRVjlE8C&pg=PA3 |title=Aboriginal Peoples of Canada: a short introduction |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8020-3630-8 |pages=3–6}}</ref> During the 20th century, Canadians with African, Caribbean, and Asian nationalities have added to the [[Canadian identity]] and its culture.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Tettey |first1=Wisdom |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QpoxptJZ73sC&pg=PA100 |title=The African Diaspora in Canada: Negotiating Identity & Belonging |last2=Puplampu |first2=Korbla P. |publisher=University of Calgary |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-55238-175-5 |page=100}}</ref>
+Historically, Canada has been influenced by [[Culture of the United Kingdom|British]], [[French culture|French]], and Indigenous cultures and traditions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Magocsi |first=Paul R |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GkAuYRVjlE8C&pg=PA3 |title=Aboriginal Peoples of Canada: a short introduction |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8020-3630-8 |pages=3–6}}</ref> During the 20th century, Canadians with African, Caribbean, and Asian nationalities have added to the [[Canadian identity]] and its culture.<ref name="t408">{{cite journal | last=Wayland | first=Sarah V. | title=Immigration, Multiculturalism and National Identity in Canada | journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights | publisher=Brill | volume=5 | issue=1 | year=1997 | issn=1385-4879 | jstor=24674516 | pages=33–58 | doi=10.1163/15718119720907408 | url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/24674516 }}</ref>
-Canada's culture draws influences from its broad range of constituent nationalities, and policies that promote a "[[just society]]" are constitutionally protected.<ref>{{multiref2
+Canada's culture draws influences from its broad range of constituent nationalities, and policies that promote a [[just society]] are constitutionally protected.<ref>{{multiref2
 | {{cite book |last=LaSelva |first=Samuel Victor |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rcqMl9MK_x0C&pg=PA86 |title=The Moral Foundations of Canadian Federalism: Paradoxes, Achievements, and Tragedies of Nationhood |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-7735-1422-5 |page=86}}
 | {{cite book |last=Dyck |first=Rand |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BUOoN8e5Ps0C&pg=PA88 |title=Canadian Politics |publisher=[[Cengage Learning]] |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-17-650343-7 |page=88}}
 | {{cite book |last=Newman |first=Stephen L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ELWjuzADl7UC&pg=PA203 |title=Constitutional Politics in Canada and the United States |date=2012 |publisher=[[SUNY Press]] |isbn=978-0-7914-8584-2 |page=203}}
-}}</ref> Since the 1960s, Canada has emphasized equality and inclusiveness for all its people.<ref>{{multiref2
+}}</ref> Since the 1960s, Canada has emphasized [[Human rights in Canada|human rights]] and inclusiveness for all its people.<ref>{{multiref2
 | {{cite journal |last=Conway |first=Shannon |title=From Britishness to Multiculturalism: Official Canadian Identity in the 1960s |journal=Études canadiennes / Canadian Studies |issue=84 |date=June 2018 |doi=10.4000/eccs.1118 |pages=9–30 |doi-access=free}}
 | {{cite book |first=Linda |last=McQuaig |date=June 4, 2010 |title=Holding the Bully's Coat: Canada and the U.S. Empire |publisher=Doubleday Canada |page=14 |isbn=978-0-385-67297-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9g4Xd12rIGYC&pg=PT14}}
@@ Line 610: / Line 604: @@
 [[File:The Jack Pine, by Tom Thomson.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|alt=Oil on canvas painting of a tree dominating its rocky landscape during a sunset|''[[The Jack Pine]]'' by [[Tom Thomson]]. Oil on canvas, 1916, in the collection of the [[National Gallery of Canada]].<ref name="Art Canada Institute - Institut de l'art canadien h165">{{cite web |title=Tom Thomson, The Jack Pine, 1916–17 |website=Art Canada Institute - Institut de l'art canadien |url=https://www.aci-iac.ca/art-books/tom-thomson/key-works/the-jack-pine/ |access-date=October 16, 2023}}</ref>]]
-Art in Canada is marked by thousands of years of habitation by its Indigenous peoples,<ref>{{cite book |first=Carol A. |last=Mullen |date=2020 |title=Canadian Indigenous Literature and Art: Decolonizing Education, Culture, and Society |publisher=Brill Sense |chapter=Introduction |isbn=978-90-04-41426-6}}</ref> and, in later times, artists have combined British, French, Indigenous, and American artistic traditions, at times embracing European styles while working to promote nationalism.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Cook |first=Ramsay |title=Landscape Painting and National Sentiment in Canada |journal=Historical Reflections / Réflexions Historiques |volume=1 |issue=2 |year=1974 |jstor=41298655 |pages=263–283}}</ref> The nature of Canadian art reflects these diverse origins, as artists have taken their traditions and adapted these influences to reflect the reality of their lives in Canada.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Mark J. |last1=Kasoff |first2=Patrick |last2=James |year=2013 |title=Canadian Studies in the New Millennium |edition=2 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |pages=198–204 |isbn=978-1-4426-6538-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gYqBAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT198}}</ref>
+Art in Canada is marked by thousands of years of habitation by Indigenous peoples,<ref>{{cite book |first=Carol A. |last=Mullen |date=2020 |title=Canadian Indigenous Literature and Art: Decolonizing Education, Culture, and Society |publisher=Brill Sense |chapter=Introduction |isbn=978-90-04-41426-6}}</ref> and, in later times, artists have combined British, French, Indigenous, and American artistic traditions, at times embracing European styles while working to promote nationalism.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Cook |first=Ramsay |title=Landscape Painting and National Sentiment in Canada |journal=Historical Reflections / Réflexions Historiques |volume=1 |issue=2 |year=1974 |jstor=41298655 |pages=263–283}}</ref> The nature of Canadian art reflects these diverse origins, as artists have taken their traditions and adapted these influences to reflect the reality of their lives in Canada.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Mark J. |last1=Kasoff |first2=Patrick |last2=James |year=2013 |title=Canadian Studies in the New Millennium |edition=2 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |pages=198–204 |isbn=978-1-4426-6538-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gYqBAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT198}}</ref>
-The Canadian government has played a role in the development of Canadian culture through the department of [[Canadian Heritage]], by giving grants to art galleries,<ref>as, for instance, in the following example of a show funded by the Government of Canada at the Peel Art Gallery Museum + Archives, Brampton:{{cite web |title=Putting a spotlight on Canada's Artistic Heritage |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/canadian-heritage/news/2020/01/putting-a-spotlight-on-canadas-artistic-heritage.html |date=January 14, 2020 |publisher=Government of Canada}}</ref> as well as establishing and funding art schools across the country, and through the [[Canada Council for the Arts]], the national public arts funder, helping artists, art galleries and periodicals, and thus contributing to the development of Canada's cultural works.<ref>{{cite book |editor-first1=Devin |editor-last1=Beauregard |editor-first2=Jonathan |editor-last2=Paquette |date=July 28, 2021 |title=Canadian Cultural Policy in Transition |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-00-041721-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e-k3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT68}}</ref>
-Canadian visual art has been dominated by figures, such as painter [[Tom Thomson]] and the [[Group of Seven (artists)|Group of Seven]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=McKay |first=Marylin J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BZWhNZwppdIC&pg=PA229 |title=Picturing the Land: Narrating Territories in Canadian Landscape Art, 1500–1950 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-7735-3817-7 |page=229}}</ref> The latter were painters with a nationalistic and idealistic focus, who first exhibited their distinctive works in May 1920. Though referred to as having seven members, five artists—[[Lawren Harris]], [[A. Y. Jackson]], [[Arthur Lismer]], [[J. E. H. MacDonald]], and [[Frederick Varley]]—were responsible for articulating the group's ideas. They were joined briefly by [[Frank Johnston (artist)|Frank Johnston]] and commercial artist [[Franklin Carmichael]]. [[A. J. Casson]] became part of the group in 1926.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hill |first=Charles C |title=The Group of Seven&nbsp;– Art for a Nation |publisher=National Gallery of Canada |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-7710-6716-7 |pages=15–21, 195}}</ref> Associated with the group was another prominent Canadian artist, [[Emily Carr]], known for her landscapes and portrayals of the [[Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Newlands |first=Anne |title=Emily Carr |publisher=Firefly Books |year=1996 |isbn=978-1-55209-046-6 |pages=8–9}}</ref>
+Modern painting in Canada has been greatly influenced by several major movements that have emerged over the years. One of the most prominent movements is the [[Group of Seven (artists)|Group of Seven]], which was founded in 1920, aimed to capture the wilderness in their artwork.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McKay |first=Marylin J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BZWhNZwppdIC&pg=PA229 |title=Picturing the Land: Narrating Territories in Canadian Landscape Art, 1500–1950 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-7735-3817-7 |page=229}}</ref>  Associated with the group was  [[Emily Carr]], known for her landscapes and portrayals of the [[Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Newlands |first=Anne |title=Emily Carr |publisher=Firefly Books |year=1996 |isbn=978-1-55209-046-6 |pages=8–9}}</ref> The mid-20th century saw the rise of [[Abstract art|abstract art]] in Canada, with artists like [[Jean-Paul Riopelle]] and [[Paul-Émile Borduas]].<ref name="y340">{{cite web | title=Painting: Modern Movements | website=The Canadian Encyclopedia | date=Jun 6, 1944 | url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/painting-modern-movements | access-date=Nov 5, 2024}}</ref> In the 1960s and 1970s, saw emergence of [[Conceptual art|conceptual art]], with artists such as [[Michael Snow]] and [[Ian Carr-Harris]].<ref name="m694">{{cite web | title=Traffic: Conceptual Art in Canada c. 1965 to 1980 – Art Museum at the University of Toronto | website=Art Museum at the University of Toronto | date=April 26, 2017 | url=https://artmuseum.utoronto.ca/exhibition/traffic-conceptual-art-canada-c-1965-1980/ | access-date=November 6, 2024}}</ref> This era also saw the emergence of Indigenous artists like [[Norval Morrisseau]], who combined traditional Indigenous techniques with modern art styles.<ref name="z744">{{cite web | title=Norval (called Copper Thunderbird) Morrisseau | website=National Gallery of Canada | url=https://www.gallery.ca/collection/artist/norval-called-copper-thunderbird-morrisseau | access-date=Nov 5, 2024}}</ref> In more recent years, [[Contemporary art|contemporary art]] has seen a revival of [[Figurative art|figurative art]], with artists such as [[Kent Monkman]] and [[Shuvinai Ashoona]].<ref name="j056">{{cite book | last1=Hill | first1=G.A. | last2=Hopkins | first2=C. | last3=Lalonde | first3=C. | author4=National Gallery of Canada | title=Sakahàn: International Indigenous Art | publisher=National Gallery of Canada | year=2013 | isbn=978-0-88884-912-0 | page=18}}</ref>
 ===Music===

Authority control databases
International	ISNI VIAF FAST WorldCat
National	Germany United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Croatia Greece Poland Israel
Geographic	MusicBrainz area
People	UK Parliament
Other	IdRef Historical Dictionary of Switzerland NARA Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine İslâm Ansiklopedisi Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine