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Hurra-yi Khuttali

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Hurra-yi Khuttali
Spouse
  • Abu Ali Hasan
​
​
(m. 1015; died 1017)​
DynastyGhaznavids
FatherSabuktigin

Hurra-yi Khuttali[a] (Template:Lang-fa; fl. 1006 c. 1006 – c. 1040) was a Ghaznavid princess, considered the most prominent woman in the Ghaznavid politics. She was the daughter of Sabuktigin, founder of the Ghaznavid dynasty, and was married to two Ma'munid rulers of Khwarazm, Abu Ali Hasan and Ma'mun II. Her marriages were a direct cause for the annexation of Khwarazm by her brother, Mahmud of Ghazni. In 1030, upon Mahmud's death, she wrote a letter to her favourite nephew, Mas'ud, urging him to claim the throne from his brother, Muhammad, who was deemed unfit to rule the empire. Her letter was one of the main reasons for Mas'ud's usurpation of the throne. She is last mentioned in 1040, leaving Ghazna for India, her ultimate fate being unknown.

Name

Hurra is an Arabic word meaning "free woman".[3] It was most likely an honorific laqab (agnomen) conferred to Ghaznavid princesses and not her actual name.[2] She used two nisbas, Khuttali and Kaliji.[1][b][c] According to British orientalist Clifford Edmund Bosworth, Khuttali may have referred to an earlier Ghaznavid marital alliance with the Principality of Khuttal, located in central Asia.[6] Another variation of her name is Khuttali Khatun, recorded by Shabankara'i (c. 1298 – c. 1358), a later historian.[2]

Biography

Early life and marriages

A map of the Khwarazm region, with the Aral Sea in the north of it
Map of Khwarazm, before 1219

Hurra-yi Khuttali was a daughter of Sabuktigin, Amir of Ghazna (r. 977–997) and the founder of the Ghaznavid dynasty.[2] According to Bosworth, she was distinguished from her sisters because of her intelligence and tactfulness, which gave her an influential role in the governmental matters. In an era when the education for women was restricted to only theology, she sought to learn other sciences.[2] She had a good relationship with her brother, Mahmud (r. 998–1030), and repeatedly sent him luxurious gifts.[2] Between 1005 and 1009, Hurra married Abu al-Hasan Ali, ruler of Khwarazm from Ma'munid dynasty.[7] This marriage would have secured an alliance between the two realms, since the Ma'amunids feared Mahmud's intentions to annex Khwarazm.[7]

Abu al-Hasan died at an uncertain date between 1006 to 1010 and was succeeded by his brother, Ma'mun II.[8] The latter, with the same intent as his brother, married Hurra in 1015.[8] Mahmud demanded his new brother-in-law to recognize him as his sovereign, which Ma'mun conceded to. However, a patriotist rebellion broke out in Khwarazm on March 1017 and the rebels killed Ma'mun for his submission.[8] Furthermore, Hurra may have been taken hostage by them.[9] Mahmud threatened the rebels with invasion unless they release Hurra. When she was safely returned, he invaded Khwarazm in revenge and sacked its capital, Gurganj.[9] It is not known if Hurra had any children with her two husbands.[2]

Mas'ud's ascension and later life

Two gold coins
Coins of Mas'ud I, Hurra's nephew

After her return to Ghazna, Hurra took on a more active role in the court.[10] She acted as a spy for her favourite nephew, Mas'ud, Mahmud's son, who was the governor of Herat.[11] In 1030, after Mahmud's death, she was entrusted with the care of his wives and concubines from his harem.[12] In his will, Mahmud gave his successor as his son Muhammad, who was crowned in Ghazna.[13] Hurra-yi Khuttali, along with her younger brother, Yusuf ibn Sabuktigin and the Turkic military commanders considered Muhammad weak and unable to rule the Ghaznavid empire, which was dependent on the powerful leadership of the Sultan.[14] Therefore, Hurra wrote a letter to Mas'ud (who was preoccupied in the west), informing him of his father's death and inviting him to take the throne.[15][d] Mas'ud marched east to claim the throne, and continued to receive letters from Hurra and his mother regarding the situation in Ghazna.[15] On his arrival in 1030 in Ghazna, Mas'ud captured Muhammad and took the throne. He put Muhammad in prison and may have had him blinded.[17][e] He also imprisoned Ali b. Il-Arsalan Qarib, the al-hajib al-kabir (commander-in-chief) of the army, who had assumed total power in Ghazna after Muhammad's ascension to become the real power behind Muhammad's government.[21]

Hurra must have maintained her influence on Mas'ud after his ascension.[17] She constantly warned Mas'ud of the importance of Ghazna as the principal territory of the empire, with Khorasan in second place.[22] However, Mas'ud was more interested in India, and neglected Khorasan.[22] As a result, Turkoman tribes migrated into the region and settled there, of which the Seljuqs rose to prominence and easily took Khorasan under their own control; the landowners of Khorasan were unsatisfied with Mas'ud's failure to provide protection in the region and their loyalty had faltered.[22][23] Mas'ud's attempt at suppressing the Seljuqs resulted in a catastrophic defeat at the Battle of Dandanaqan (1040).[24] Afterwards, he retreated towards Ghazna, urging Hurra, his other aunts and his mother to leave Ghazna with him for India.[25] Hurra-yi Khuttali is reported to have said: "Let anyone who wishes to fall into the enemies' hands remain in Ghazna."[17] This is the last recorded mention of Hurra-yi Khuttali by Beyhaqi.[2] Mas'ud's entourage was raided en route by rebels, Mas'ud himself was killed and his throne was usurped by Muhammad.[26] Hurra's ultimate fate, however, is unknown.[2]

Assessments

Hurra-yi Khuttali's interference in Mahmud's succession was the most prominent instance of a woman openly partaking in the politics during the Ghaznavid period.[27] Without the zeal of Hurra and the royal Ghaznavid women in recalling Mas'ud, he possibly would not have returned to claim the throne from his brother.[28] Her literary competence is shown in her letter to Mas'ud, in which, she provokes her nephew's emotions and urges him to return with speed.[29] From a Feminist outlook, throughout her life, she displayed her authority as a woman without consideration of the intolerant society of her era.[29]

References

Notes

  1. ^ Also known as: Hurra-yi Kaliji[1] (Template:Lang-fa) and Khuttali Khatun (Template:Lang-fa).[2]
  2. ^ Iranian historian, Shirin Bayani considers the two nisbas to refer to different persons.[4] However, Meisami and Bosworth both confirm that Hurra-yi Khuttali and Hurra-yi Kaliji were one person.[4][2]
  3. ^ Nisba is a part of an Arabic name that acts as an adjective, often referring to the individual's place of origin. It is possible to have several nisbas.[5]
  4. ^ The text of the letter: "Our ruler Sultan Mahmud died in the afternoon of Thursday 23 Rabi' al-Awwal—may God have mercy on him—and the fortune of servants has come to an end. I and the women of the harem are all in the citadel of Ghazna. The day after tomorrow we will make known his death. At night the king was buried in the Pirouzi garden, while we still longed to see him, for we had not seen him for a week. Affairs are in the hands of Hajib Ali [Ali b. Il-Arsalan Qarib]. After the burial, swift horsemen went that night to Guzganan so that your brother Muhammad might come here quickly and ascend the throne. The amir [Mas'ud] knows that his brother is not equal to this great task; this house has many enemies, and we women and the treasuries are in great peril. He [Mas'ud] must take charge of the affairs quickly, for he is his father's vali ahd (crown prince). He must not occupy himself with the region he has conquered or take any other. [...] [M]ake ready to come with all speed, so that neither the throne nor ourselves will be lost, send the messengers back quickly as your aunt is awaiting them anxiously. We will write to him of all that happens here."[15] (The interchangeable use of passive voice was to ensure the safety of the author and the receiver, because the fate of the letters were often uncertain.[16])
  5. ^ According to Bosworth, no primary sources (such as Abu'l-Fadl Bayhaqi and Gardizi) affirm that Muhammad was blinded by Mas'ud.[18] The claim only appears with later sources such as in the works of Firishta, Juzjani and Ibn al-Athir.[18] However, many Iranian exegetes of Bayhaqi's book, Tarikh-i Bayhaqi (e.g. Khalil Khatib Rahbar and Mohammad Dabirsiaghi) include Muhammad's blindness in Bayhaqi's account.[19] German historian Bertold Spuler states that Mas'ud blinded Muhammad to disqualify him from rights to succession.[20]

Citations

  1. ^ a b Bosworth 1998, p. 101.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Forouzani 2014.
  3. ^ Boloix-Gallardo 2014, p. 388.
  4. ^ a b Meisami 2003, p. 100.
  5. ^ Bearman et al. 2012.
  6. ^ Bosworth 1981, p. 13.
  7. ^ a b Meisami 2003, p. 87.
  8. ^ a b c Bosworth 2017.
  9. ^ a b Meisami 2003, p. 88.
  10. ^ Pirouti 2010, p. 145.
  11. ^ Bosworth 1963, p. 96-97.
  12. ^ Bosworth 1963, p. 138.
  13. ^ Bosworth 1963, p. 228.
  14. ^ Bosworth 1963, p. 229.
  15. ^ a b c Meisami 2003, p. 85.
  16. ^ Mourad-Pour 2019, p. 91.
  17. ^ a b c Pirouti 2010, p. 146.
  18. ^ a b Bosworth 1977, p. 18.
  19. ^ Sahrai & Hasani Jalilian 2010, p. 78.
  20. ^ Spuler 2015, p. 115.
  21. ^ Bosworth 2020.
  22. ^ a b c Bosworth 1963, p. 235.
  23. ^ Bosworth 2008, p. 14.
  24. ^ Meisami 2003, p. 96.
  25. ^ Meisami 2003, p. 97.
  26. ^ Bosworth 2008, p. 195.
  27. ^ Pirouti 2010, p. 151.
  28. ^ Meisami 2003, p. 86.
  29. ^ a b Mourad-Pour 2019, p. 97.

Bibliography

  • Boloix-Gallardo, Bárbara (2014). "Beyond the Ḥaram: Ibn al-Khaṭīb and His Privileged Knowledge of Royal Nasrid Women". Medieval Encounters. 20 (4–5): 383–402. doi:10.1163/15700674-12342180. ISSN 1380-7854.
  • Bosworth, C. Edmund (1998). "The Ghaznavids". In Bosworth, C. Edmund; Asimi, Muhammad (eds.). The Age of achievement, A.D. 750 to the end of the fifteenth century; Pt. I: the historical, social and economic setting. History of civilizations of Central Asia. Vol. 4. Paris: UNESCO Publishing. pp. 102–122. ISBN 92-3-103467-7.
  • Bosworth, C. Edmund (1981). "The Rulers of Chaghāniyān in Early Islamic Times". Iran. 19: 1–20. doi:10.2307/4299704.
  • Bosworth, C. Edmund (2017). "Āl-e Maʾmūn". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica, Online Edition. Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation. Retrieved 10 March 2024.
  • Bosworth, C. Edmund (2020). "ʿAlī b. Il-Arsalan Qarīb". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica, Online Edition. Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation. Retrieved 16 March 2024.
  • Bosworth, C. Edmund (1963). The Ghaznavids: Their Empire in Afghanistan and Eastern Iran 994-1040. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 8121505739. OCLC 3601436.
  • Bosworth, C. Edmund (1977). The Later Ghaznavids: Splendour and Decay: The Dynasty in Afghanistan and Northern India 1040-1186. Edenborough: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 9788121505772. OCLC 912548799.
  • Bosworth, C. Edmund (2008) [1975]. "The Political and Dynastic History of the Iranian World (A.D. 1000-1217)". In Frye, R.N. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran: From the Arab invasion to the Saljuqs. The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol. 4. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–202. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521069366.002. ISBN 9780511467769. OCLC 457145665.
  • Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.Edmund; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (2012). "Ism". Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_3641.
  • Forouzani, Seyyid Abu'l-Ghasem (2014). "حره ختلی" [Hurra-yeh Khuttali]. Encyclopaedia of the World of Islam (in Persian). Tehran. OCLC 1049714918.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Mourad-Pour, Elham (2019). "بررسی نامه حره ختلی از تاریخ بیهقی بر اساس تحلیل گفتمان اعترافی )فمینیست(" [Review of the Horeh Khutali's Letter of Beyhaghi's History Based on the Analysis of the Confessional (Feminist) Discourse]. Ourmazd Literary (in Persian). 7 (50): 78–99. ISSN 2322-1364.
  • Meisami, Julie Scott (2003). "Eleventh-Century Women: Evidence from Bayhaqi's History". In Nashat, Guity; Beck, Lois (eds.). Women in Iran from the Rise of Islam to 1800. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. pp. 80–103. ISBN 9780252028397. OCLC 50960739.
  • Pirouti, Khadijeh (2010). "موقعیت زنان در دوران غزنویان" [Women's Position During the Age of Ghaznavids]. Tarikh-eh Now (in Persian). 1 (1). Tarbiat Modares University: 141–153. ISSN 2322-1941.

Sahrai, Ghasem; Hasani Jalilian, Mohammad Reza (2010). "بیهقی و ماجرای کوری امیرمحمد غزنوی" [Beyhaghi and the Blindness of Amir Mohammad Ghaznavi]. Journal of Historical Researches (in Persian). 2 (3): 77–92. ISSN 2476-3306. OCLC 1244446711.

  • Spuler, Bertold (2015) [1952]. Hoyland, Robert G. (ed.). Iran in früh-islamischer Zeit. Politik, Kultur, Verwaltung und öffentliches Leben zwischen der arabischen und der seldschukischen Eroberung 633 bis 1055 [Iran in the Early Islamic Period: Politics, Culture, Administration and Public Life between the Arab and the Seljuk Conquests, 633–1055] (in German). Translated by Goldbloom, Gwendolin; Walburh, Berenike. Boston: Brill. ISBN 9789004282094. OCLC 895257360.
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