Israel–United States military relations
- See Israel-United States relations for a general overview of bilateral relations between the two countries.
Israel-United States military relations have been extremely close,[1] reflecting both shared security interests in the unstable Middle East and the influence of a strong pro-Israel lobby in the United States.
Israel has been the largest annual recipient of direct economic and military assistance from the United States since 1976, and the largest total recipient since World War II. [2] A major purchaser and user of US military equipment, Israel is also involved in the joint development of military technology and regularly engages in joint military exercises involving United States and other friendly forces.[3][4]
The relationship has deepened gradually over time, though, as Alan Dowty puts it, it was "not a simple linear process of growing cooperation, but rather a series of tendentious bargaining situations with different strategic and political components in each." [5]
Overview
During the first twenty years of Israel's existence, United States policy in the Middle East was driven by two major policy concerns: The prevention of an arms race in the Near East[6], and the prevention of the spread of Soviet influence. Israel's main military patron at the time was France, which supported Israel by providing it with advanced military equipment and technology, such as the Dassault Mystère fighter-bomber aircraft. Initially, the US government resisted pressure by Israel and Arab countries in the region to sell them advanced weapons. In response to the supply of advanced fighter aircraft by the USSR to Iraq and the United Arab Republic, the US government agreed to sell MIM-23 Hawk anti-aircraft missiles to Israel in 1962, as a "specific action designed to meet specific situation" which "by no means constitutes change in US policy in area.". The Hawk system was perceived as "purely defensive", which is why it was approved. [6]. Later, as Jordan threatened to turn to the USSR for weapons, the US agreed to sell tanks and jet aircraft to Jordan, in order to prevent Soviet influence, and in return, agreed to sell similar system to Israel [7]
During the early 1960s, the U.S. government sought to establish a regional arms limitation agreement in the Middle East. The initiative lost steam in early 1965 after it was disclosed that the U.S. had been indirectly supplying weapons to Israel via West Germany since 1962, under the terms of a 1960 secret agreement to supply Israel with $80 million worth of armaments. The remainder of the agreement was fulfilled publicly, following its disclosure by the U.S., with Israel receiving shipments of M48 Patton tanks in 1965 and A-4E Skyhawk attack aircraft in 1968.[8]
U.S. policy changed markedly after the Six-Day War of 1967, in response to a perception that many Arab states (notably Egypt) had permanently drifted toward the Soviet Union. In 1968, with strong support from Congress, U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson approved the sale of F-4 Phantom II fighters to Israel, establishing the precedent for U.S. support for Israel's qualitative military edge over its neighbors. The U.S., however, would continue to supply arms to Israel's neighbors, particularly Lebanon, Jordan and Saudi Arabia, in order to counter Soviet arms sales and influence in the region.
During the Yom Kippur War in 1973, the U.S. mounted a major airlift codenamed Operation Nickel Grass to deliver weapons and supplies to Israel. Over 22,000 tons of tanks, artillery, ammunition, and other materiel were delivered to aid the Israeli military in response to a large-scale Soviet resupply effort of the Arab states. The operation was paralleled by a large-scale sealift of some 33,000 tons of materiel and the transfer of 40 F-4 Phantoms, 36 A-4 Skyhawks and twelve C-130 Hercules transport aircraft to replace Israeli war losses.[9]
Bilateral military cooperation deepened under the Ronald Reagan administration in the 1980s. In 1981, U.S. Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger and Israeli Minister of Defense Ariel Sharon signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU), establishing a framework for continued consultation and cooperation to enhance the national security of both countries. In November 1983, the two sides formed a Joint Political Military Group, which still meets twice a year, to implement most provisions of the MOU.[10] Joint air and sea military exercises began in June of 1984, and the United States has constructed facilities to stockpile military equipment in Israel.
In 1987, the United States granted Israel the status of major non-NATO ally, enabling it to compete equally with NATO and other U.S. allies for contracts and purchase advanced U.S. weapons systems. Israel became the largest recipient of U.S. military aid in the world (see military aid below).[4] In 1988, Reagan and Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Shamir signed a memorandum of understanding to formalize and perpetuate the work of the bilateral U.S.-Israel military, security and economic working groups.[10]
In an effort to prevent Israel from retaliating against Iraqi SS-1 Scud missile attacks during the Persian Gulf war of 1991, and thereby breaking up the US-Arab coalition, the U.S. dispatched MIM-104 Patriot surface-to-air missile batteries to Israel. The effort met with very limited success, with less than 10% and perhaps as few as none of the Scuds fired against Israel intercepted successfully. [11]
Under the Bill Clinton administration in the 1990s, the U.S. government made efforts to bolster the Israeli government's military edge by allowing it to purchase $700m of the latest U.S. military equipment, including advanced fighters, attack helicopters and the Joint Direct Attack Munition system. A series of major joint military technology development projects was also instituted.[3]
Further extensive military cooperation took place under the George W. Bush administration, with Israel placing major orders for F-16I multirole fighters. During the 2006 Lebanon War, the United States provided a major resupply of jet fuel and precision-guided munition to replenish depleted Israeli stocks.[3]
Joint military activity
The United States and Israel cooperate closely in a number of areas of military activity. The U.S. underwrites Israel's research and development of weapons, contributing significant amounts of money to Israeli defense projects such as the Merkava main battle tank and the IAI Lavi ground-attack aircraft. Israel is a participant in the F-35 Lightning II fighter development program and was offered access to the F-22 Raptor program, though it turned this down due to the high costs.[4]
The U.S. and Israel also cooperate jointly on a number of technology development programs, notably the Arrow missile system and the Tactical High Energy Laser (also known as Nautilus).[4] The two countries carry out regular exercises together, including carrying out biennial exercises codenamed JUNIPER COBRA intended to test interoperability between the two militaries. In addition, the Israeli port of Haifa is the main port of call in the eastern Mediterranean for the United States Sixth Fleet, and Israel provides other logistical and maintenance support for U.S. forces in the region.[3] The two countries also share intelligence and maintain a joint anti-terrorist working group,[4] and in April 2007 their air forces committed to share information about mutually relevant procurements.[12]
Controversies
The close military relationship between the U.S. and Israel has engendered a number of controversies over the years. Operation Nickel Grass — the U.S. resupply effort during the Yom Kippur War — led to retaliation, as the Arab states declared a complete oil embargo on the United States, causing oil prices to skyrocket, fuel becoming scarce, and embroiling the United States in the 1973 oil crisis.
Israeli use of U.S.-provided military equipment in the 1982 Lebanon War resulted in controversy, exposing serious differences between Israeli and U.S. policies.[citation needed] Similar controversies attended Israel's use of weapons supplied by the U.S. in the course of the Palestinian First Intifada and al-Aqsa Intifada as well as the 2006 Lebanon War.
Military aid
Israel has received more U.S. military assistance than any other country, both in terms of grant aid and military sales on a concessional basis. Since 1987, the U.S. has provided an average of $1.8 billion annually in the form of Foreign Military Sales (FMS), Foreign Military Financing (FMF) and funds to support research and development.[3]
A bilateral memorandum of understanding was signed in January 2001, at the end of the Clinton administration, under which defense aid was increased to $2.4 billion annually from $1.8 billion, while the $1.2 billion of economic aid would be eliminated. This was predicated on the basis of the defense aid being increased by $60 million per year until the full amount was reached in 2008, while the economic aid is decreased by $120 million per year until eliminated.[4][13]
In 2007, the United States increased its military aid to Israel by over 25%, to an average of $3 billion per year for the following ten year period (starting at $2.550 billion for 2008, growing by 150 million each year).[14] The package is scheduled to start October 2008, when regular economic aid to Israel's economy is to end.[15] Officials have insisted the aid is not tied, or meant to balance, simultaneous military aid packages totalling $20 billion to Arab countries including Saudi Arabia[15]. U.S. President George W. Bush assured Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert that the U.S. would help keep a "qualitative advantage" to Israel over other nations in the region.[14]
Foreign military sales
Note: This is not a comprehensive listing of U.S. military sales to Israel.
| Year | FMS | DCS | TOTAL |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2001 | $766,026,000 | $4,019,000 | $770,045,000 |
| 2002 | $629,426,000 | $1,427,000 | $630,853,000 |
| 2003 | $845,952,000 | $16,455,000 | $862,407,000 |
| 2004 | $878,189,000 | $418,883,000 | $1,297,072,000 |
| 2005 | $1,652,582,000 | $1,110,223,000 | $2,762,805,000 |
| 2001 - 2005 | $4,772,175,000 | $1,551,007,000 | $6,323,182,000 |
- FMS - Foreign Military Sales
- DCS - Direct Commercial Sales
- Source: "Facts Book: Department of Defense, Security Assistance Agency," September 30, 2005.[16]
Foreign military financing
Note: This is not a comprehensive listing of US ESF and military aid to Israel.
| Year | FMF | ESF | Supplementals | NADR-ATA | TOTAL |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2001 | $1,975,644,000 | $838,000,000 | $2,813,644,000 | ||
| 2002 | $2,040,000,000 | $720,000,000 | $28,000,000 | $2,788,000,000 | |
| 2003 | $2,086,350,000 | $596,100,000 | $1,000,000,000 | $3,682,450,000 | |
| 2004 | $2,147,256,000 | $477,168,000 | $2,624,424,000 | ||
| 2005 | $2,202,240,000 | $357,120,000 | $50,000,000 | $210,000 | $2,609,570,000 |
| 2006 (estimated) | $2,257,200,000 | $273,600,000 | $526,000 | $2,531,326,000 | |
| 2007 (requested) | $2,340,000,000 | $120,000,000 | $320,000 | $2,460,320,000 | |
| Total 2001-2007 | $15,048,690,000 | $3,381,988,000 | $1,050,000,000 | $29,056,000 | $19,509,734,000 |
- FMF - Foreign Military Financing (direct military aid)
- ESF - Economic Support Fund (open-ended monetary assistance that can be used to offset military spending and arms purchases, as well as for non-military purposes)
- Supplementals are special one-time grants meant as a complement to already allocated aid
- NADR-ATA - Nonproliferation, Anti-Terrorism, Demining & Related Programs
- Source: "Congressional Budget Justification for Foreign Operations," Fiscal Years 2001-2007.[16]
Significant major procurements
The United States is the largest single supplier of military equipment to Israel. According to the U.S. Congressional Research Service, between 1998-2005 the U.S. accounted for the vast majority of Israel's arms transfer agreements, accounting for $9.1 billion out of $9.5 billion worth of agreements.[17]
Israel deals directly with U.S. companies for the vast majority of its military purchases from the United States, though it requires permission from the U.S. government for specific purchases. Permission is not always automatic; for instance, in March 2000 it became known that the Israeli government had been refused permission to purchase BGM-109 Tomahawk missiles.[4]
Israel has the world's largest F-16 fleet outside the United States Air Force. With the delivery of 102 F-16Is, scheduled through 2008, the Israeli Air Force will have a total F-16 inventory of 362, in addition to 89 F-15s. [18]
U.S. military equipment in Israeli use
This is not a comprehensive list. In addition to indigenously-developed military equipment, Israel has made a number of procurements from the United States in recent years, including systems procured directly from U.S. manufacturers and ex-U.S. Forces equipment. The Israel Defense Forces also makes use of U.S. military systems not necessarily procured directly from the U.S. The list below includes U.S.-made weapon systems paid for from funding provided by the USA, by Israel alone, or by a combination of funding from both nations. All data is from Jane's Sentinel Eastern Mediterranean 2007 [4] unless otherwise stated.
| Item | Quantity | Year procured |
Origin |
|---|---|---|---|
| Fighter aircraft | |||
| F-15A Eagle | 25 | 1991-92 | Ex-U.S. Air Force |
| F-16C/D Fighting Falcon | 60 | 1991-93 | U.S. |
| F-16A/B Fighting Falcon | 50 | 1991-93 | Ex-U.S. Air Force |
| F15I Eagle | 25 | From 1997 | U.S. |
| F-16I Fighting Falcon | 102 | From 2003 | U.S. |
| Transport planes | |||
| C-130 Hercules E/H | 39 | From 1974 | U.S. |
| Boeing KC-707 | ?? | 1973 | U.S. |
| Gulfstream G550 | 5 | From 2003 | U.S. |
| Utility aircraft | |||
| Cessna 206 | ?? | ?? | Unknown |
| Training aircraft | |||
| Northrop Grumman TA-4 | ?? | ?? | U.S. |
| Attack helicopters | |||
| AH-1E HueyCobra | 14 | 1995 | Ex-U.S. Army |
| AH-64 Apache | 36 | 1990-91 | U.S. |
| AH-64D Apache | 9 | From 2004 | U.S. |
| Utility, cargo, and support helicopter | |||
| S-65/CH-53E Sea Stallion | 10 | 1990-91 | U.S. |
| S-65/CH-53D Sea Stallion | 2 | 1994 | Ex-U.S. Air Force |
| Bell 206 | ?? | ?? | Unknown |
| Bell 212 | ?? | ?? | Unknown |
| Sikorsky S-70A-50 | 15 | 2002-03 | U.S. |
| S-70/UH-60A Black Hawk | 10 | 1994 | Ex-U.S. Army |
| Ground defense vehicles | |||
| M-113 | 6,000 | ?? | Unknown |
| Patton tank | 300 | ?? | Unknown |
| Artillery | |||
| M109 howitzer | ?? | ?? | Unknown |
| M270 Multiple Launch Rocket System | 42 | From 1995 | U.S. |
| Munitions | |||
| Joint Direct Attack Munition | 6,700 [19] | 1999-2004 | U.S. |
| Mark 84 general purpose bomb | ?? | ?? | U.S. |
| Missiles | |||
| FIM-92A Stinger | 200 | 1993-94 | U.S. |
| MIM-104 Patriot | 32 | 1991 | U.S. |
| MIM-72 Chaparral | 500 | On order | Ex-U.S. Forces |
| M48A3 Self-Propelled Chaparral System | 36 | On order | Ex-U.S. Forces |
| AGM-114 Hellfire II | ?? | Mid-1990s | U.S. |
| AGM-62 Walleye | ?? | ?? | Unknown |
| AGM-65 Maverick | ?? | ?? | Unknown |
| AGM-78 Standard ARM | U.S. | ||
| AGM-142D | 41 | On order | Joint Israel/U.S. |
| AIM-120 AMRAAM | 64 | On order | U.S. |
| AIM-7 Sparrow | ?? | ?? | Unknown |
| AIM-9S Sidewinder | 200 | 1993-94 | U.S. |
| AGM-64 Harpoon | ?? | ?? | Unknown |
| BGM-71 TOW-2A/B | ?? | Mid-1990s | U.S. |
References
- ^ Gregory S. Mahler, Israel After Begin, p. 45. SUNY Press, 1990. ISBN 079140367X
- ^ Clyde R. Mark, Foreign Affairs Defense and Trade Division (26 April 2005). "Israel:US Foreign Assistance" (PDF). Congressional Research Service, The Library of Congress.
- ^ a b c d e United States: External Affairs", in Jane's Sentinel: North America 2007. Jane's Information Group, 2007.
- ^ a b c d e f g h "Israel: External Affairs", in Jane's Sentinel: Eastern Mediterranean 2007. Jane's Information Group, 2007.
- ^ Prof. Alan Dowty, foreword in Abraham Ben-Zvi, Lyndon B. Johnson and the Politics of Arms Sales to Israel: in the shadow of the hawk, p. vii. Routledge, 2004. ISBN 0714655805
- ^ a b Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963: Near East, 1962-1963, V. XVIII. DC: GPO, 2000.
- ^ National Archives and Records Administration, RG 59, Central Files 1964-66, DEF 12-5 JORDAN.
- ^ Mitchell Geoffrey Bard, The Water's Edge and Beyond: defining the limits to domestic influence on U.S. Middle East policy. Transaction Publishers, 1991. ISBN 088738286X
- ^ Simon Dunstan, The Yom Kippur War 1973: The Sinai, p. 67. Osprey Publishing, 2003. ISBN 1841762210
- ^ a b Leon T. Hadar, Quagmire: America in the Middle East, p. 75. Cato Institute, 1992. ISBN 0932790941
- ^ The Patriot Missile. Performance in the Gulf War Reviewed
- ^ Yaakov Katz (June 22, 2007). "IAF, USAF greatly upgrade cooperation". The Jerusalem Post.
{{cite news}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ Jeremy M. Sharp (2006-01-05). "U.S. Foreign Aid to Israel - Report to Congress January 5, 2006" (PDF). Congressional Research Service.
{{cite news}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ a b Forbes (July 29, 2007).[1]"Israeli PM announces 30 billion US dollar US defence aid". Retrieved August 3, 2007.
- ^ a b New York Times, August 17, 2007 "US and Israel sign Military deal".Retrieved Aug 17, 2007.
- ^ a b Berrigan, Frida (July 20, 2006). "U.S. Military Assistance and Arms Transfers to Israel: U.S. Aid, Companies Fuel Israeli Military" (PDF). Arms Trade Resource Center Reports. World Policy Institute. Retrieved 2006-08-13.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|date=(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ Conventional Arms Transfers to Developing Nations, 1998-2005, p. 62. Congressional Research Service, October 23, 2006.
- ^ "More than 50 Lockheed Martin F-16s planned for Israel, more than $2 billion value". Lockheed Martin press release. June 19, 2001.
- ^ "Israeli Air Force", globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 2007-05-13.