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Myanmar

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This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Wagaung (talk | contribs) at 22:53, 4 June 2006 (→Religion: corrected century,changed rituals to customs). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Union of Myanmar

Pyi-daung-zu Myan-ma Naing-ngan-daw
Anthem: Kaba Ma Kyei
Location of Myanmar
CapitalNaypyidaw
Largest cityYangon (Rangoon)
Official languagesBurmese
GovernmentMilitary junta
Independence
• Water (%)
3.06%
Population
• July 2005 estimate
50,519,0001 (24th)
• 1983 census
33,234,000
GDP (PPP)2005 estimate
• Total
$76.2 billion (66th)
• Per capita
$1,800 (187th)
HDI (2003)0.578
medium (129th)
Currencykyat (K) (mmK)
Time zoneUTC+6:30 (MMT)
• Summer (DST)
UTC+6:30 (not observed)
Calling code95
ISO 3166 codeMM
Internet TLD.mm
1.) Note: estimates for this country take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected.

Myanmar, officially the Union of Myanmar (also known as Burma or the Union of Burma by bodies and states who do not recognize the ruling military junta), is the largest country (in geographical area) in mainland Southeast Asia. It is bordered by the People's Republic of China on the north, Laos on the east, Thailand on the southeast, Bangladesh on the west, and India on the northwest, with the Andaman Sea to the south, and the Bay of Bengal to the southwest. There are over 2,000 kilometres (1,243 mi) of coastline. The country was ruled by a military junta led by General Ne Win from 1962 to 1988, and its political system today remains under the tight control of its military government, since 1992, led by Senior General Than Shwe.

Origin and history of the name

Main article: Explanation of the names of Burma/Myanmar

The name "Myanmar" comes from the two words "myan", which translates "swift", and "ma", which translates "strong". It also refers to a resident or citizen of Myanmar, or more specifically, a person from the majority Bamar ethnic group.

In 1989, the military junta officially changed the English version of its name from Burma to Myanmar (along with changes in the English versions of many place names in the country, such as its former capital city, from Rangoon to Yangon). The official name of the country in the Burmese language, Myanmar, did not change, however. The renaming proved to be politically controversial, seen by some as being less inclusive of minorities, and linguistically unscholarly. Some disagree that the military junta had authority to "officially" change the name in English in the first place. Acceptance of the name change in the English speaking world has been slow, with many people still using the name Burma to refer to the country. Major news organisations like the BBC and western governments, including those of the United States and the United Kingdom, still officially refer to it as Burma. The Economist and The New York Times are among several Western publications to regularly use the term "Myanmar".

History

Main article: History of Myanmar

In a series of wars (1824 – 1826, 1851 – 1852 and 1885 – 1886) Burma lost territory to the British and became a province of India under British rule. On April 1, 1937, Burma became a separately-administered colony independent of the Indian administration. During World War II Burma became a major front in the Southeast Asian Theatre. After initial successes by the Japanese in the Burma Campaign which saw them expel the British from most of Burma, the British fought back and by July 1945 had retaken the country. Burmese fought for both sides in the war. The Burma 1st Division, the Kachin Levies, the Karen Rifles and in other formations such as the American-Kachin Rangers fought for the Allies, and the Burmese National Army under the command of Aung San fought for the Japanese.

A British 1825 lithography of Shwedagon Pagoda, located in Yangon

On January 4, 1948, at 4:20 a.m., the nation became an independent republic, known as the Union of Burma, with Sao Shwe Thaik as its first President and U Nu as its first Prime Minister. There was a bicameral parliament consisting of a Chamber of Deputies and a Chamber of Nationalities.

Democratic rule ended in 1962 with a military coup d'état led by General Ne Win. Ne Win ruled for nearly 26 years, bringing in harsh reforms. In 1990, free elections were held for the first time in almost 30 years, but the landslide victory of the NLD, the party of Aung San Suu Kyi was voided by the military, which refused to step down.

One of the national heroes in Burmese history of the 20th century is the founder of the modern Burmese army and one of the leaders of the fight for independence General Aung San, a student-turned activist whose daughter is the 1991 Nobel Peace Laureate and worldwide peace, freedom and democracy icon Aung San Suu Kyi of the NLD, who has been under house arrest intermittently for 10 years since 1989. Another well known Burmese figure in the world is U Thant, who was UN Secretary General for two terms and highly respected in the history of the United Nations, most notably for his handling of the Cuban Missile Crisis.

On March 27, 2006, the military junta, which had moved the national capital from Yangon to a site near Pyinmana, officially named it Naypyidaw, meaning "seat of kings".[1]

Politics

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Map of Myanmar

Myanmar has been under military rule since 1962. The current Head of State is Senior General Than Shwe who holds the title of "Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council." His appointed prime minister was Khin Nyunt until 19 October 2004, when he was replaced by Gen. Soe Win. Almost all cabinet offices are held by military officers. US sanctions against the military government have been largely ineffective, due to loopholes in the sanctions and the willingness of mainly Asian business to continue investing in Myanmar and to initiate new investments, particularly in natural resource extraction. For example, the French oil company Total S.A. is able to buy Myanmar's oil despite the country being under sanctions, although Total (formerly TotalFinaElf) is the subject of a lawsuit in French and Belgian courts for alleged connections to human rights abuses along the gas pipeline jointly owned by Total, the American company Unocal, and the Myanmar military.[2] The United States clothing and shoe industry could also be affected if all the sanctions loopholes were to be closed, although they were already subject to boycotts prior to US sanctions imposed in June of 2002. At the same time, the US-led sanctions are criticized by many for their adverse effects mainly on the civilian population rather than on the military rulers.[3][4]

File:Propagandamandalay.jpg
A government slogan at Mandalay Palace stating "Tatmadaw and the people, cooperate and crush all those harming the union."

The regime is accused of having an appalling human rights record and the human rights situation in the country is a subject of concern for a large number of international organizations. There is no independent judiciary in Myanmar and political opposition to the military government is not tolerated. Internet access is highly restricted. The state uses software-based filtering from US company Fortinet to limit the materials citizens can access on-line, including free email services, free web hosting and most political opposition and pro-democracy pages.[5]

In 1988, protests against economic mismanagement and political oppression were violently repressed; on August 8 of that year, the military opened fire on demonstrators in what has come to be known as the 8888 Uprising. Nonetheless, the 1988 protests paved way for the 1990 elections; these were, however, invalidated by the military. Aung San Suu Kyi, whose opposition party won 83% of parliamentary seats in a 1990 national election, but who was prevented from becoming prime minister by the military, has earned international praise as an activist for the return of democratic rule to Myanmar. She won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991. She has been repeatedly placed under house arrest, although in recent years the regime has been willing to enter into negotiations with her and her party, the National League for Democracy. She was placed under house arrest on May 31, 2003, following an attack on her convoy in northern Myanmar. Her house arrest was extended for yet another year in late November of 2005. Despite a direct appeal by Kofi Annan to Than Shwe and pressure by ASEAN, the Burmese government extended Aung San Suu Kyi's house arrest another year on 27 May 2006.[6]

The junta faces increasing international isolation. Burma's situation was referred to the UN Security Council for the first time in December for an informal consultation. ASEAN has also stated its frustration with Burma's government. However, with China supporting the junta, any dramatic change in the country's political situation seems unlikely.

Administrative Divisions

Main article: Subdivisions of Myanmar
Myanmar is divided into 7 states and 7 divisions.

Myanmar is divided into states and divisions. Divisions are predominantly Bamar. States, in essence, are divisions in which particular ethnic minorities exist. There are 7 divisions and 7 states in the country. The administrative divisions are further subdivided into townships, wards, and villages.

Major cities such as Yangon and Mandalay have larger metropolitan areas. Therefore, townships in the suburbs of such cities are designated as myo-thit (New Town). Upon reaching the government's installed development markers, the New Towns become townships.

Within the states, there are ethnic-based movements for self-autonomy and independence.

Divisions

States

Geography

Main article: Geography of Myanmar

Myanmar is located between Bangladesh and Thailand, with China to the north and India to the north-west, with coastline on the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea. The country has a total area of 678,500 square kilometres (261,970 sq mi), of which almost half is forest or woodland.

In the north, the Hengduan Shan mountains form the border with China. The fertile plains of the Ayeyarwady and Thanlwin Rivers are in the central lowlands of Myanmar. Most of the country's population lives in this central lowland. The Shan Plateau lies east of Mandalay. In the south, the Ayeyarwady River fans out into a wide and fertile delta. Many crops are grown in this region, which borders the Andaman Sea. The Gulf of Martaban also indents the southern coast of Myanmar. It drains into the Andaman Sea.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Myanmar
File:Sakuratoweryangon.jpg
The Sakura Tower in Yangon is virtually vacant due to lack of major foreign investment.

Under British colonial administration, Myanmar was the wealthiest country in Southeast Asia and was believed to be on the fast track to development. Today, it is one of the poorest nations in the world, suffering from the 1962 military takeover and Burmese Way to Socialism, a plan to consolidate and nationalise all industries. During this period, there was economic mismanagement and stagnation. In 1989, the government of Myanmar began decentralising economic control and has since liberalised certain sectors of the economy. However, the lucrative industries of gems, oil and forestry remain under the control of the military government. The United Nations lists Myanmar as an LDC[7] (least developed country). Tourism is being encouraged by the government; however, fewer than 750,000 tourists enter the country yearly. Private enterprises are often co-owned or indirectly owned by the Tatmadaw. In recent years, both China and India have attempted to strengthen ties with the government because of Myanmar’s oil reserves.

Some nations, such as the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom, have imposed trade sanctions on Myanmar. Foreign investment comes primarily from China, Singapore and Thailand.

Myanmar lacks adequate infrastructure, and has suffered as a result. Goods travel primarily across the Burmese-Thai border, whence most illegal drugs are exported, and along the Ayeyarwady (Irawaddy) River. Railroads are rudimentary, with few repairs since their construction in the 19th century. Highways are normally unpaved, except in the major cities. Energy shortages are common throughout the country. Myanmar is the second-largest producer of heroin in the world. Other industries include agricultural goods, textiles, wood products, construction materials, and metals. The lack of an educated workforce also contributes to the growing problems of the Burmese economy.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Myanmar
Much of Yangon's population reside in densely-populated flats.

All population figures are at best educated guesses. The last accurate census was taken by the British in the 1930s. The largely unorganised results of the last pre-World War II censuses were destroyed during the Japanese invasion. The CIA World Factbook gives an unsupported estimate of about 42.9 million and one branch of the UN reports there are about 50 million.[8] Other reports speak of 40 to 55 million inhabitants. A million or more Burmese might be living and working in neighbouring countries (especially Thailand). With figures varying for the whole country by several million, it is evident that figures for various minority groups are not very reliable. Reports and observations in the northern half of the country suggest that several hundred thousand Chinese have migrated into Myanmar in recent years. Other reports suggest that some of these émigrés have subsequently returned to China.

Ethnicity

Myanmar is ethnically diverse. Although the government recognises over 100 distinct ethnic groups, the actual number is much lower. The dominant ethnic group are the Bamar who form what is guessed to be 68% of the population and speak Burmese. 10% of the population are Shan, who speak Shan dialects, related to Laotian and Thai. The Kayin (Karen) make up 7% of the population, and speak a variety of Tibeto-Burman languages.

The Rakhine (Arakanese), who constitute 4% of the population, are ethnically related to the Bamar, but are culturally different. Overseas Chinese (mainly Hokkien and Cantonese speakers) form approximately 3% of the population, but are primarily unrecognised by the government (in terms of citizenship). Mon, who form 2% of the population, are ethno-linguistically related to the Khmer. Overseas Indians (mainly Tamil, Hindi, and Bengali speakers) comprise 2% as well, and like the Chinese, do not have citizenship rights. The remainder are Kachin, Chin, and other ethnic minorities. The Anglo-Burmese, once forming around 8% of the population of the country in total, and forming at least a quarter of the population of Rangoon itself, have decreased in number to around only 52,000 nationwide, with an estimated 1.6 million outside of Burma's borders (see Anglo-Burmese). There are no trustworthy census numbers for the country since the 1930s. All of the estimates with regard to percentages of population are only guesswork with no scientific basis.

A young Padaung girl in Myanmar, 2004.

The existing government continues to honour both colonial laws and laws passed after independence regarding citizenship, granting it only to those who have lineage in Myanmar’s former entities prior to colonisation. Overseas groups, particularly the Indians and Chinese, to obtain such citizenship, have intermixed with the local populace, making the percentages more obscure. A person of two ethnic backgrounds is known as kabya. "Citizenship" is generally of dubious value because of open discrimination. Large portions of the population have for years functioned without official citizenship.

After the “Burmese Way to Socialism” was enacted in the 1960s, millions of people left the country. Anti-Chinese riots took place during the 1960s and 1970s causing a large but temporary exodus of ethnic Chinese. However, many Chinese have entered the country in recent years. Wars with various ethnic groups in the border areas forced many more people out of the country. In addition, many Indians (Muslim and non-Muslim) returned to Pakistan and India because of similar discriminatory policies.

The government is widely known for its persecution of minority groups throughout the country, particularly because of civil unrest and calls for secession and autonomy. Throughout the mid-1990s, the government negotiated treaties to end warfare. However, the government continues to detain and relocate minority groups further from Bamar-dominant areas. In addition, massive refugee camps exist along the borders of both Thailand and Bangladesh.

Language

Burmese is the official language of Myanmar. Because of years of British colonisation, English is still spoken in Bamar-dominant areas because English instruction begins during primary school, and because most textbook materials from secondary school upward are exclusively written in English. Ethnic minorities, with the exception of overseas groups, tend to speak Burmese as a second language.

The Burmese alphabet adapted the Mon script, which in turn was developed from a southern Indian script in the 8th century. The earliest known inscriptions in the Burmese script date from the 11th century. The script is also used to write Pali, the sacred language of Theravada Buddhism.

Religion

Buddhism in Myanmar is predominantly Theravada Buddhism and is practised by 89% of the population, especially the Bamar (and its subgroups, including the Rakhine), Shan, Mon, and Chinese. Christianity is practised by 4% of the population, predominantly among the hill dwelling Kachin, Chin and Kayin as a result of missionary work in their respective areas. Christianity is also prevelant among the Anglo-Burmese and Anglo-Indians. Most Christians are Protestants, in particular Baptists of the Myanmar Baptist Convention, founded by the American missionary Adoniram Judson in the 19th century, although Catholics, Anglicans, Methodists, Mormons, Seventh Day Adventists and Jehovah's Witnesses are all represented as well. Four percent of the population practises Islam; these Muslims are divided amongst long-established persons of Indian, Indo-Burmese descent, Persian, Arab and Panthay Chinese descent, and Rohingya Muslims of Rakhine State. The Muslim population is socially marginalised, and is widely-segregated. Small segments of the population practise Hinduism or animism. Due to a lack of accurate census data these percentages are only estimates. There are no reliable figures for the percentages of the population that follow particular religions.

Buddhism has been patronised since independence by both civilian and military governments. Large sums of state funds under both military governments and the government of U Nu in the 1950s have been provided for the creation of Buddhist monuments and the general support of Buddhism. The government continually persecutes Christians and Muslims. Religious tolerance does exist, in theory, but because of stigmas attached to certain religions, particularly Christianity and Islam, by association with foreign rule and colonialism and for certain customs and attempts at proselytisation, such tolerance is often undermined.

Education

Template:Wikify-date

Main article: Education in Myanmar

Education in Myanmar has suffered under the military regime mainly as a result of the government's disproportionate expenditure on the military. According to the UN, the government spends 222% more on the military than on both education and health.

Children of military families and wealthy Bamars receive most of the benefits of the limited opportunities for education, and the education that is available is in Burmese or English; there is little to no formal education in the minority languages. The official literacy rate listed by the Burmese government in 1999 was 83%, although some organisations, including UNICEF, estimate functional literacy is closer to 30%. A 1995 survey by the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) found the following education statistics for Myanmar:

  • 30% of children do not start schooling
  • 40% of school aged children have never attended primary school
  • 26% of parents cannot afford the cost of primary schooling for their children
  • 60% of those who do start school are unable to finish at the primary level

After pro-democracy student-led demonstrations in 1988, the ruling military junta forced the closure of all universities in Myanmar for several years. The government then began to open new universities in the suburbs and rural areas of Mandalay and Yangon to disperse students to several campuses in order to prevent major unrest.

The University of Rangoon was once the most prestigious of all Universities in Southeast Asia.[citation needed] Formed as a Rangoon College, an associate college of the University of Calcutta, with its merger with the former Judson College (also known as 'Karen College' because of the large number of ethnic Karen students), it formed the University of Rangoon. With the advent of military rule and the banning of English in the 1960's, the University lost its prestige and today is part of the University of Yangon.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Myanmar
An ear-piercing ceremony in Mandalay.

Although a diverse range of indigenous cultures exist in Myanmar, the dominant culture is primarily Buddhist and Bamar. Bamar culture has been influenced by the cultures of neighbouring China, India, and Thailand. This is reflected in various aspects of its language, cuisine, music, dance and theatre. The arts, particularly literature, have historically been influenced by the Burmese form of Theravada Buddhism. Buddhism is practised along with nat worship which involves elaborate rituals to propitiate one of a pantheon of 37 Nats.

In a traditional Burmese village, there is at least one monastery and monks are venerated and supported by the lay people. The majority of Burmese monks reside in Mandalay Division and Sagaing Division. A novitiation ceremony called Shinbyu is the most important coming of age event for a boy when he enters the monastery for a short while and the happiest moment in life of his proud parents. His sisters may have an ear-piercing ceremony (na htwin) at the same time. Burmese culture is most evident in villages where local festivals are held throughout the year, the most important being the pagoda festival (hpaya pwe). Many villages have a guardian nat, and superstition and taboos are commonplace in Burmese life.

British colonial rule also introduced Western elements of culture to Myanmar. Myanmar's educational system is modelled after that of Great Britain, and colonial architectural influences are most evident in cities such as Yangon and Mawlamyine. Many ethnic minorities, particularly the Kachin and Chin who populate the north and the northwest practice Christianity, a result of Western missionary work in the area.

Burmese, the language of the Bamar and official language of Myanmar, is linguistically related to Tibetan and, more distantly, to the Chinese languages. It is written in a script consisting of circular and semi-circular letters adopted, with modifications, from the Mon script, which in turn originated in southern India. The language incorporates widespread usage of honorifics and is age-oriented.[citation needed] Burmese society, from historical times to the present-day, has stressed the importance of education. Literacy in Myanmar is considered important for interpreting religious texts of Theravada Buddhism.

See also: Cuisine of Myanmar, Literature of Myanmar, and Music of Myanmar

Miscellaneous topics

International rankings

Notes

  1. ^ "Burma's new capital stages parade". BBC News. 2006-03-27. Retrieved 2006-06-24. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  2. ^ "Dilemma of dealing with Burma". BBC News. 2004-10-20. Retrieved 2004-11-02. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |firstname= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |lastname= ignored (help)
  3. ^ "How Best to Rid the World of Monsters". Washington Post. 2003-06-23. Retrieved 2006-05-24. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |firstname= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |lastname= ignored (help)
  4. ^ "Reuters Belgian group seeks Total boycott over Myanmar". Ibiblio. Reuters. 1999-05-10. Retrieved 2006-06-24. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  5. ^ "Internet Filtering in Burma in 2005: A Country Study". OpenNet Initiative.
  6. ^ The Irrawaddy (2006-05-27). "Suu Kyi's Detention Extended, Supporters likely to Protest". The Irrawaddy. Retrieved 2006-05-27. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  7. ^ "Internet Filtering in Burma in 2005: A Country Study". UN-OHRLLS. 2005.
  8. ^ "POPULATION AND SOCIAL INTEGRATION SECTION (PSIS)". UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific.

Government

Other

 ASEAN

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