View source for Rashtrakutas

{{pp|small=yes}}
{{short description|Early medieval Indian dynasty (mid-6th to 10th century)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}
{{Infobox country
| native_name            = 
| conventional_long_name = Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta
| common_name            = Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta
| status                 = 
| status_text            =
| government_type        = [[Monarchy]]
| year_start             = 753
| year_end               = 982
| date_end               = 20 March
| event_pre              = Earliest Rashtrakuta records
| date_pre               = 753 CE
| p1                     = Chalukya dynasty
| s1                     = Western Chalukya Empire
| image_map              = Indian Rashtrakuta Empire map.svg
| image_map_caption      = Rashtrakuta control around 790 AD, during the [[Tripartite Struggle]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Keay |first=John|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tarbo7OzEO8C|title=India: A History |date=2000|publisher=Grove Publication|page=198|isbn=0802137970 |language=en}}</ref>
| capital                = [[Manyakheta]]
| common_languages       = [[Kannada language|Kannada]]<br />[[Sanskrit]]
| religion               = [[Hinduism]]<br />[[Jainism]]<br />[[Buddhism]]<ref name="buddha">The Rise and Decline of [[Buddhism]] in India, K.L. Hazara, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1995, pp288–294</ref><br />
| leader1                = [[Dantidurga]]
| leader2                = [[Indra IV]]
| year_leader1           = 735–756
| year_leader2           = 973–982
| title_leader           = [[Maharaja]]
| today                  = [[India]]
}}
{{Rashtrakuta Manyakheta Kings Infobox}}
The '''Rashtrakutas'''{{efn|[[IAST]]: ''{{IAST|rāṣṭrakūṭa}}''}} were a royal Indian [[dynasty]] ruling large parts of the [[Indian subcontinent]] between the 6th and 10th centuries. The earliest known Rashtrakuta [[Indian inscriptions|inscription]] is a 7th-century [[copper plate grant]] detailing their rule from Manapur, a city in Central or West India. Other ruling Rashtrakuta clans from the same period mentioned in inscriptions were the kings of [[Achalpur|Achalapur]] and the rulers of [[Kannauj]]. Several controversies exist regarding the origin of these early Rashtrakutas, their native homeland and their language.

The Elichpur clan was a [[feudatory]] of the [[Badami Chalukyas]], and during the rule of [[Dantidurga]], it overthrew Chalukya [[Kirtivarman II]] and went on to build an empire with the [[Gulbarga]] region in modern [[Karnataka]] as its base. This clan came to be known as the Rashtrakutas of [[Manyakheta]], rising to power in [[South India]] in 753 AD. At the same time the [[Pala Empire|Pala dynasty]] of [[Bengal]] and the [[Prathihara|Prathihara dynasty]] of [[Gurjaratra]] were gaining force in eastern and northwestern India respectively. An Arabic text, ''Silsilat al-Tawarikh'' (851), called the Rashtrakutas one of the four principal empires of the world.<ref name="siraf">Reu (1933), p39</ref>

This period, between the 8th and the 10th centuries, saw a [[tripartite struggle]] for the resources of the rich [[Indo-Gangetic Plain|Gangetic plains]], each of these three empires annexing the seat of power at Kannauj for short periods of time. At their peak the Rashtrakutas of [[Manyakheta]] ruled a vast empire stretching from the [[Ganges|Ganges River]] and [[Yamuna River]] [[doab]] in the north to [[Kanyakumari]] in the south, a fruitful time of political expansion, architectural achievements and famous literary contributions. The early kings of this dynasty were influenced by [[Hinduism]] and the later kings by [[Jainism]].

During their rule, [[Jain]] mathematicians and scholars contributed important works in [[Kannada]] and [[Sanskrit]]. [[Amoghavarsha I]], the most famous king of this dynasty wrote ''[[Kavirajamarga]]'', a landmark literary work in the Kannada language. Architecture reached a milestone in the [[Dravidian architecture|Dravidian]] style, the finest example of which is seen in the [[Kailasa Temple, Ellora|Kailasanatha Temple]] at [[Ellora Caves|Ellora]] in modern [[Maharashtra]]. Other important contributions are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at [[Pattadakal]] in modern Karnataka, both of which are [[UNESCO World Heritage Sites]].

== History ==
{{Further|Origin of the Rashtrakuta dynasty|Branches of Rashtrakuta dynasty|Carnatic expansion}}

The origin of the Rashtrakuta dynasty has been a controversial topic of Indian history. These issues pertain to the origin of the earliest ancestors of the Rashtrakutas during the time of Emperor [[Ashoka]] in the 2nd century [[Common Era|BCE]],<ref name="arattas">[[Bisheshwar Nath Reu|Reu]] (1933), pp1–5</ref> and the connection between the several Rashtrakuta dynasties that ruled small kingdoms in northern and central India and the Deccan between the 6th and 7th centuries. The relationship of these medieval Rashtrakutas to the most famous later dynasty, the Rashtrakutas of [[Manyakheta]] (present-day Malkhed in the [[Kalaburagi district]], Karnataka state), who ruled between the 8th and 10th centuries has also been debated.<ref name="connect">Altekar (1934), pp1–32</ref><ref name="connect1">Reu (1933), pp6–9, pp47–53</ref><ref name="study1" />

The sources for Rashtrakuta history include medieval [[Indian inscriptions|inscriptions]], ancient literature in the [[Pali]] language,<ref name="pali">Reu (1933), p1</ref> contemporaneous literature in Sanskrit and [[Kannada]] and the notes of the Arab travellers.<ref name="sources">Kamath (2001), p72</ref> Theories about the dynastic lineage (''[[Suryavansha|Surya Vamsa]]''—Solar line and ''[[Chandravansha|Chandra Vamsa]]''—Lunar line), the native region and the ancestral home have been proposed, based on information gleaned from inscriptions, royal emblems, the ancient clan names such as "Rashtrika", epithets (''Ratta'', ''Rashtrakuta'', ''Lattalura Puravaradhiswara''), the names of princes and princesses of the dynasty, and clues from relics such as coins.<ref name="study1">Kamath (2001), p72–74</ref><ref name="study">Reu (1933), pp1–15</ref> Scholars debate over which ethnic/linguistic groups can claim the early Rashtrakutas. Possibilities include the [[Kannadiga]],<ref name="Kanisetti">{{cite book |author1=Anirudh Kanisetti|year=2022|title=Lords of the Deccan: Southern India from the Chalukyas to the Cholas |url=|location=India|publisher=Juggernaut |page=193|isbn=978-93-91165-0-55|quote=It is most likely that they were Kannada-speaking military aristocrats settled at a strategic point in modern-day Maharasthra by the Chalukyas or some other powerful group, perhaps to keep an eye on trade routes and various tribal peoples.}}</ref><ref name="kann">A Kannada dynasty was created in [[Berar Sultanate|Berar]] under the rule of Badami Chalukyas (Altekar 1934, p21–26)</ref><ref name="kann2">Kamath 2001, p72–3</ref><ref name="latur">Singh (2008), p556</ref><ref name="banavasi">{{cite book |last=Shetty|first=Sadanand Ramakrishna|date=1994|title=Banavasi Through the Ages|url=|location=Banavasi (India)|publisher=Printwell|page=121}}:"The community of the land tillers or agriculturists was known as Vokkaligas. The importance given to the cultivation of land is amply demonstrated by the fact that numerous tanks were dug and irrigation facilities were provided at various places. Some of the Rashtrakuta inscriptions found in the Banavasi province have the depiction of a plow. It is viewed that the Rashtrakutas were originally prosperous cultivators who later dominated the political scene. Some of the inscriptions refer to them as "Kutumbinah" which is interpreted as cultivators."</ref> [[Reddi]],<ref name="red">A.C. Burnell in Pandit Reu (1933), p4</ref> the [[Maratha]],<ref name="mar">C.V. Vaidya (1924), p171</ref><ref name="mar1">D.R.Bhandarkar in Reu, (1933), p1, p7</ref> the tribes from the [[Punjab region]],<ref name="pun">Hultzsch and Reu in Reu (1933), p2, p4</ref> or other north western ethnic groups of India.<ref name="raj">[[John Faithfull Fleet|J. F. Fleet]] in Reu (1933), p6</ref>

Scholars however concur that the rulers of the imperial dynasty in the 8th to 10th century made the [[Kannada language]] as important as Sanskrit. Rashtrakuta inscriptions use both Kannada and Sanskrit (historians [[Sheldon Pollock]] and Jan Houben claim they are mostly in Kannada),<ref name="language">Kamath (2001), p73</ref><ref name="language1">Pollock 2006, p332</ref><ref name="houb">Houben(1996), p215</ref><ref name="language2">Altekar (1934), p411–3</ref><ref name="dal">Dalby (1998), p300</ref> and the rulers encouraged literature in both languages. The earliest existing Kannada literary writings are credited to their court poets and royalty.<ref name="credit">Sen (1999), pp380-381</ref><ref name="Jaina_literature">During the rule of the Rashtrakutas, literature in Kannada and Sanskrit flowered (Kamath 2001, pp 88–90)</ref><ref name="Jaina_literature1">Even royalty of the empire took part in poetic and literary activities – Thapar (2003), p334</ref><ref name="Jaina_literature2">Narasimhacharya (1988), pp17–18, p68</ref> Though these Rashtrakutas were [[Kannadiga]]s,<ref name="banavasi"/><ref name="study1" /><ref name="kanna">Altekar (1934), pp21–24</ref><ref name="kanna1">Possibly Dravidian Kannada origin (Karmarkar 1947 p26)</ref><ref name="mas">Masica (1991), p45-46</ref><ref name="ravi">Rashtrakutas are described as Kannadigas from Lattaluru who encouraged the Kannada language (Chopra, Ravindran, Subrahmanian 2003, p87)</ref><ref name="Kanisetti"/> they were conversant in a northern Deccan language as well.<ref>{{cite book|title=Rashtrakuta Dynasty|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ISFBJarYX7YC&q=Rashtrakuta&pg=PA286|author=Hoiberg and Ramchandani|publisher=Students Britannica| isbn=978-0-85229-760-5|year=2000}}</ref>

The heart of the Rashtrakuta empire included nearly all of [[Karnataka]], [[Maharashtra]] and parts of [[Andhra Pradesh]], an area which the Rashtrakutas ruled for over two centuries. The Samangadh copper plate grant (753) confirms that the feudatory King [[Dantidurga]], who probably ruled from Achalapura in [[Berar Province|Berar]] (modern [[Achalpur|Elichpur]] in Maharashtra), defeated the great Karnatic army (referring to the army of the [[Badami Chalukyas]]) of Kirtivarman II of [[Badami]] in 753 and took control of the northern regions of the Chalukya empire.<ref name="karnatik">Reu (1933), p54</ref><ref name="karnata">From Rashtrakuta inscriptions call the Badami Chalukya army ''Karnatabala'' (power of ''Karnata'') (Kamath 2001, p57, p65)</ref><ref name="achala">Altekar in Kamath (2001), p72</ref> He then helped his son-in-law, [[Pallava]] King [[Nandivarman II]] regain [[Kanchi]] from the Chalukyas and defeated the Gurjaras, and the rulers of [[Odisha|Kalinga]], [[Kosala]] and [[Srisailam]].<ref name="srisila">Sastri (1955), p141</ref><ref name="Gulbarga">Thapar (2003), p333</ref>

Dantidurga's successor [[Krishna I]] brought major portions of present-day Karnataka and [[Konkan]] under his control.<ref name="kon">Sastri (1955), p143</ref><ref name="secure">Sen (1999), p368</ref> During the rule of [[Dhruva Dharavarsha]] who took control in 780, the kingdom expanded into an empire that encompassed all of the territory between the [[Kaveri River]] and [[Central India]].<ref name="kon" /><ref name="abdication">Desai and Aiyar in Kamath (2001), p75</ref><ref name="abd">Reu (1933), p62</ref><ref name="panindia">Sen (1999), p370</ref> He led successful expeditions to Kannauj, the seat of northern Indian power where he defeated the [[Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty|Pratihara]]s and the [[Pala Empire|Palas]] of Bengal, gaining him fame and vast booty but not more territory. He also brought the [[Eastern Chalukyas]] and [[Gangas]] of [[Talakad]] under his control.<ref name="kon" /><ref name="effectively">The Rashtrakutas interfered effectively in the politics of Kannauj (Thapar 2003), p333</ref> According to Altekar and Sen, the Rashtrakutas became a pan-India power during his rule.<ref name="panindia" /><ref name="All-India">From the Karda inscription, a ''[[digvijaya (conquest)|digvijaya]]'' (Altekar in Kamath 2001, p75)</ref>

=== Expansion ===
{{Further|Tripartite Struggle}}

{{South Asia in 800 CE||The Rashtrakutas and neighbouring polities in South Asia circa 800 CE.<ref name="JES">{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |pages=31, 146|isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=068}}</ref>}}
The ascent of Dhruva Dharavarsha's third son, [[Govinda III]], to the throne heralded an era of success like never before.<ref name="era">The ablest of the Rashtrakuta kings (Altekar in Kamath 2001, p77)</ref> There is uncertainty about the location of the early capital of the Rashtrakutas at this time.<ref name="earlycapital">Modern Morkhandi ([[Mayurkhandi]] in [[Bidar district]] (Kamath 2001, p76)</ref><ref name="earlycapital1">modern Morkhand in Maharashtra (Reu 1933, p65)</ref><ref name="earlycapital2">Sooloobunjun near Ellora (Couseris in Altekar 1934, p48). Perhaps Elichpur remained the capital until Amoghavarsha I built Manyakheta. From the Wani-Dmdori, Radhanpur and Kadba plates, Morkhand in Maharashtra was only a military encampment, from the Dhulia and Pimpen plates it seems Nasik was only a seat of a viceroy, and the Paithan plates of Govinda III indicate that neither Latur nor Paithan was the early capital.(Altekar, 1934, pp47–48)</ref> During his rule there was a three way conflict between the Rashtrakutas, the Palas and the Pratiharas for control over the Gangetic plains. Describing his victories over the Pratihara Emperor Nagabhatta II and the [[Pala Empire|Pala]] Emperor [[Dharmapala of Bengal|Dharmapala]],<ref name="kon" /> the Sanjan inscription states the horses of Govinda III drank from the icy waters of the Himalayan streams and his war elephants tasted the [[sacred waters]] of the [[Ganges]].<ref name="icy">Kamath 2001, MCC, p76</ref><ref name="Himalayas">From the Sanjan inscriptions, {{cite web|title=The Rashrakutas|url=http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/deccan/rashtrakutas/|author=Dr. Jyotsna Kamat|publisher=1996–2006 Kamat's Potpourri|access-date=20 December 2006}}</ref> His military exploits have been compared to those of [[Alexander the Great]] and [[Arjuna]] of [[Mahabharata]].<ref name="arjuna">Keay (2000), p199</ref> Having conquered Kannauj, he travelled south, took firm hold over Gujarat, Kosala ([[Kosala|Kaushal]]), [[Mysore|Gangavadi]], humbled the [[Pallavas]] of Kanchi, installed a ruler of his choice in [[Vengi]] and received two statues as an act of submission from the king of [[Sri Lanka|Ceylon]] (one statue of the king and another of his minister). The Cholas, the [[Pandyas]] and the Kongu Cheras of Karur all paid him tribute.<ref name="kerela">From the Nesari records (Kamath 2001, p76)</ref><ref name="kerela1">Reu (1933), p65</ref><ref name="statue">Sastri (1955), p144</ref><ref name="peru">Narayanan, M. G. S. (2013), p95, ''Perumāḷs of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy: Political and Social Conditions of Kerala Under the Cēra Perumāḷs of Makōtai (c. AD 800 – AD 1124).'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks</ref> As one historian puts it, the drums of the Deccan were heard from the Himalayan caves to the shores of the Malabar Coast.<ref name="arjuna" /> The Rashtrakutas empire now spread over the areas from [[Cape Comorin]] to [[Kannauj]] and from [[Banaras]] to [[Bharuch]].<ref name="hima">"The victorious march of his armies had literally embraced all the territory between the Himalayas and Cape Comorin" (Altekar in Kamath 2001, p77)</ref><ref name="lord">Sen (1999), p371</ref>

The successor of Govinda III, [[Amoghavarsha I]] made [[Manyakheta]] his capital and ruled a large empire. Manyakheta remained the Rashtrakutas' regal capital until the end of the empire.<ref name="newcapital">Which could put to shame even the capital of gods-From Karda plates (Altekar 1934, p47)</ref><ref name="newcapital1">A capital city built to excel that of [[Indra]] (Sastri, 1955, p4, p132, p146)</ref><ref name="newcapital2">Reu 1933, p71</ref> He came to the throne in 814 but it was not until 821 that he had suppressed revolts from [[Feudatory|feudatories]] and ministers. Amoghavarsha I made peace with the [[Western Ganga dynasty]] by giving them his two daughters in marriage, and then defeated the invading [[Eastern Chalukyas]] at Vingavalli and assumed the title ''Viranarayana''.<ref name="vira">from the Cambay and Sangli records. The Bagumra record claims that Amoghavarsha saved the "Ratta" kingdom which was drowned in an "ocean of Chalukyas" (Kamath 2001, p78)</ref><ref name="vinga">Sastri (1955), p145</ref> His rule was not as militant as that of Govinda III as he preferred to maintain friendly relations with his neighbours, the Gangas, the Eastern Chalukyas and the Pallavas with whom he also cultivated marital ties. His era was an enriching one for the arts, literature and religion. Widely seen as the most famous of the Rashtrakuta Emperors, [[Amoghavarsha I]] was an accomplished scholar in Kannada and Sanskrit.<ref name="scholar">Narasimhacharya (1988), p1</ref><ref name="rhetoric" /> His ''Kavirajamarga'' is considered an important landmark in Kannada poetics and ''Prashnottara Ratnamalika'' in Sanskrit is a writing of high merit and was later translated into the Tibetan language.<ref name="rhetoric1">Reu (1933), p38</ref> Because of his religious temperament, his interest in the arts and literature and his peace-loving nature, he has been compared to the emperor [[Ashoka]] and called "Ashoka of the South".<ref name="Ashoka">Panchamukhi in Kamath (2001), p80</ref>

During the rule of [[Krishna II]], the empire faced a revolt from the Eastern Chalukyas and its size decreased to the area including most of the Western [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] and Gujarat.<ref name="reduce">Sastri (1955), p161</ref> Krishna II ended the independent status of the Gujarat branch and brought it under direct control from Manyakheta. [[Indra III]] recovered the dynasty's fortunes in central India by defeating the [[Kingdom of Malwa]] and then invaded the [[doab]] region of the [[Ganges]] and [[Yamuna River|Jamuna]] rivers. He also defeated the dynasty's traditional enemies, the Pratiharas and the Palas, while maintaining his influence over [[Vengi]].<ref name="reduce" /><ref name="pala">From the writings of [[Adikavi Pampa]] (Kamath 2001, p81)</ref><ref name="regain">Sen (1999), pp373-374</ref> The effect of his victories in Kannauj lasted several years according to the 930 copper plate inscription of Emperor [[Govinda IV]].<ref name="control">Kamath (2001), p82</ref><ref name="control1">The Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta gained control over Kannauj for a brief period during the early 10th century (Thapar 2003, p333)</ref> After a succession of weak kings during whose reigns the empire lost control of territories in the north and east, [[Krishna III]] the last great ruler consolidated the empire so that it stretched from the [[Narmada River]] to [[Kaveri River]] and included the northern Tamil country (Tondaimandalam) while levying tribute on the king of Ceylon.<ref name="kanchi">From the Siddalingamadam record of 944 – Krishna III captured Kanchi and Tanjore as well and had full control over northern Tamil regions (Aiyer in Kamath 2001, pp82–83)</ref><ref name="kanchi11">From the Tirukkalukkunram inscription – Kanchi and Tanjore were annexed by Krishna III. From the Deoli inscription – Krishna III had feudatories from Himalayas to Ceylon. From the Laksmeshwar inscription – Krishna III was an incarnation of death for the Chola Dynasty (Reu 1933, p83)</ref><ref name="kanchi100">Conqueror of Kanchi, (Thapar 2003, p334)</ref><ref name="tanjai">Conqueror of Kanchi and Tanjore (Sastri 1955, p162)</ref><ref name="last">Sen 1999), pp374-375</ref>

=== Decline ===

In 972 CE.,<ref name="Chandra">{{cite book|last1=Chandra|first1=Satish|title=History of Medieval India|date=2009|publisher=Orient Blackswan Private Limited|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-250-3226-7|pages=19–20}}</ref> during the rule of [[Khottiga Amoghavarsha]], the [[Kingdom of Malwa|Malwa]] King [[Siyaka]] Harsha attacked the empire and plundered Manyakheta, the capital of the Rashtrakutas. This seriously undermined the reputation of the Rastrakuta Empire and consequently led to its downfall.<ref name="Amoghavarsha IV">{{cite web|title=Amoghavarsha IV|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9050671/Manyakheta|publisher=2007 Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=25 April 2007}}</ref> The final decline was sudden as [[Tailapa II]], a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta ruling from Tardavadi province in modern [[Bijapur district, Karnataka|Bijapur district]], declared himself independent by taking advantage of this defeat.<ref name="Tailapa">The province of Tardavadi in the very heart of the Rashtrakuta empire was given to Tailapa II as a ''fief'' (provincial grant) by Rashtrakuta [[Krishna III]] for services rendered in war (Sastri 1955, p162)</ref><ref name="tailapa1">Kamath (2001), p101</ref> Indra IV, the last emperor, committed [[Sallekhana]] (fasting unto death practised by Jain monks) at [[Shravanabelagola]]. With the fall of the Rashtrakutas, their feudatories and related clans in the Deccan and northern India declared independence. The [[Western Chalukyas]] annexed Manyakheta and made it their capital until 1015 and built an impressive empire in the Rashtrakuta heartland during the 11th century. The focus of dominance shifted to the [[Krishna River]]&nbsp;– [[Godavari River]] doab called [[Vengi]]. The former feudatories of the Rashtrakutas in western Deccan were brought under control of the Chalukyas, and the hitherto-suppressed Cholas of Tanjore became their arch enemies in the south.<ref name="yadgir">Kamath (2001), pp100–103</ref>

In conclusion, the rise of Rashtrakutas of [[Manyakheta]] had a great impact on India, even on India's north. Sulaiman (851), [[Al-Masudi]] (944) and Ibn Khurdadba (912) wrote that their empire was the largest in contemporary India and Sulaiman further called it one among the four great contemporary empires of the world.<ref name="contemp">Reu (1933), p39–41</ref><ref name="reded">Keay (2000), p200</ref><ref name="Imperial">Kamath (2001), p94</ref> According to the travelogues of the Arabs Al Masudi and Ibn Khordidbih of the 10th century, "most of the kings of Hindustan turned their faces towards the Rashtrakuta king while they were praying, and they prostrated themselves before his ambassadors. The Rashtrakuta king was known as the "King of kings" (''Rajadhiraja'') who possessed the mightiest of armies and whose domains extended from Konkan to Sind."<ref name="Burjor">[[Burjor Avari]] (2007), ''India: The Ancient Past:''
A History of the Indian Sub-Continent from c. 7000 BC to AD 1200'', pp.207–208, Routledge, New York, {{ISBN|978-0-415-35615-2}}''</ref> Some historians have called these times an "Age of Imperial Kannauj". Since the Rashtrakutas successfully captured Kannauj, levied tribute on its rulers and presented themselves as masters of North India, the era could also be called the "Age of Imperial Karnataka".<ref name="Imperial" /> During their political expansion into central and northern India in the 8th to the 10th centuries, the Rashtrakutas or their relatives created several kingdoms that either ruled during the reign of the parent empire or continued to rule for centuries after its fall or came to power much later. Well known among these were the Rashtrakutas of [[Gujarat]] (757–888),<ref name="guj">Reu (1933), p93</ref> the [[Ratta dynasty|Rattas]] of [[Saundatti]] (875–1230) in modern Karnataka,<ref name="kar">Reu (1933), p100</ref> the Gahadavalas of Kannauj (1068–1223),<ref name="gaha">Reu (1933), p113</ref> the Rashtrakutas of [[Rajasthan]] (known as Rajputana) and ruling from Hastikundi or Hathundi (893–996),<ref name="has">Reu (1933), p110</ref> Dahal (near [[Jabalpur]]),<ref name="Dah">Jain (2001), pp67–75</ref> [[Rathore dynasty|Rathore]]s of Mandore (near [[Jodhpur]]), the [[Rathore dynasty|Rathore]]s of Dhanop,<ref name="dhan">Reu (1933), p112</ref> Rashtraudha dynasty of Mayuragiri in modern Maharashtra<ref name="mayur">De Bruyne (1968)</ref> and Rashtrakutas of Kannauj.<ref name="kannau">Majumdar (1966), pp50–51</ref> [[Rajadhiraja Chola]]'s conquest of the island of Ceylon in the early 11th century CE led to the fall of four kings there. According to historian K. Pillay, one of them, King Madavarajah of the [[Jaffna kingdom]], was an usurper from the Rashtrakuta dynasty.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Pillay|first1=K. |year=1963 |title=South India and Ceylon |publisher=[[University of Madras]] |oclc=250247191}}</ref>

==Administration==
{{Karnataka History}}
Inscriptions and other literary records indicate the Rashtrakutas selected the crown prince based on heredity. The crown did not always pass on to the eldest son. Abilities were considered more important than age and chronology of birth, as exemplified by the crowning of Govinda III who was the third son of king Dhruva Dharavarsha. The most important position under the king was the Chief Minister (''Mahasandhivigrahi'') whose position came with five insignia commensurate with his position namely, a flag, a conch, a fan, a white umbrella, a large drum and five musical instruments called ''Panchamahashabdas''. Under him was the commander (''Dandanayaka''), the foreign minister (''Mahakshapataladhikrita'') and a prime minister (''Mahamatya'' or ''Purnamathya''), all of whom were usually associated with one of the feudatory kings and must have held a position in government equivalent to a premier.<ref name="archive">whose main responsibility was to draft and maintain inscriptions or ''Shasanas'' as would an archivist. (Altekar in Kamath (2001), p85</ref> A ''Mahasamantha'' was a feudatory or higher ranking regal officer. All cabinet ministers were well versed in political science (''Rajneeti'') and possessed military training. There were cases where women supervised significant areas as when Revakanimaddi, daughter of [[Amoghavarsha I]], administered Edathore ''Vishaya''.

The kingdom was divided into ''Mandala'' or ''Rashtras'' (provinces). A ''Rashtra'' was ruled by a Rashtrapathi who on occasion was the emperor himself. Amoghavarsha I's empire had sixteen ''Rashtras''. Under a ''Rashtra'' was a ''[[Vishaya]]'' (district) overseen by a Vishayapathi. Trusted ministers sometimes ruled more than a ''Rashtra''. For example, Bankesha, a commander of [[Amoghavarsha I]] headed several ''Rashtras'', besides ruling [[Banavasi]] which included 12,000 villages in that territory, lesser ''Rashtras'' included: Kunduru (500), Belvola (300), Puligere (300) and Kundarge (70). Below the ''Vishaya'' was the ''Nadu'' looked after by the ''Nadugowda'' (or Nadugavunda); sometimes there were two such officials, one assuming the position through heredity and another appointed centrally. The lowest division was a ''Grama'' or village administered by a ''Gramapathi'' or ''Prabhu Gavunda''.<ref name="mandala">Kamath (2001), p86</ref>

The Rashtrakuta army consisted of large contingents of infantry, horsemen, and elephants. A standing army was always ready for war in a cantonment (''Sthirabhuta Kataka'') in the regal capital of Manyakheta. Large armies were also maintained by the feudatory kings who were expected to contribute to the defense of the empire in case of war. Chieftains and all the officials also served as commanders whose postings were transferable if the need arose.<ref name="army">From the notes of Al Masudi (Kamath 2001, p88)</ref>

The Rashtrakutas issued coins (minted in an ''Akkashale'') such as ''Suvarna'', ''Drammas'' in silver and gold weighing 65&nbsp;[[Grain (measure)|grains]], ''Kalanju'' weighing 48&nbsp;grains, ''Gadyanaka'' weighing 96&nbsp;grains, ''Kasu'' weighing 15&nbsp;grains, ''Manjati'' with 2.5&nbsp;grains and ''Akkam'' of 1.25&nbsp;grain.<ref name="coins">Kamath (2001), p88</ref>

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Rashtrakuta empire of Manyakheta}}
[[File:Kasivisvanatha temple at Pattadakal.jpg|thumb|right|Kashivishvanatha temple at [[Pattadakal]], Karnataka]]
The Rashtrakuta economy was sustained by its natural and agricultural produce, its manufacturing revenues and moneys gained from its conquests. Cotton was the chief crop of the regions of southern Gujarat, [[Khandesh]] and Berar. Minnagar, Gujarat, [[Ujjain]], [[Paithan]] and Tagara were important centres of textile industry. [[Muslin]] cloth were manufactured in Paithan and [[Warangal]]. The cotton yarn and cloth was exported from [[Bharuch|Bharoch]]. White [[Calico (textile)|calicos]] were manufactured in [[Burhanpur]] and Berar and exported to [[Persia]], [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]], [[Khazaria]], [[Arabia]] and [[Egypt]].<ref name="trade">Altekar (1934), p356</ref> The Konkan region, ruled by the feudatory Silharas, produced large quantities of [[betel]] leaves, coconut and rice while the lush forests of Mysore, ruled by the feudatory [[Gangas]], produced such woods as sandal, timber, teak and ebony. Incense and perfumes were exported from the ports of [[Thane|Thana]] and Saimur.<ref name="trade1" />

The Deccan was rich in minerals, though its soil was not as fertile as that of the Gangetic plains. The copper mines of [[Cudappah]], [[Bellary]], Chanda, Buldhana, Narsingpur, [[Ahmadnagar]], Bijapur and [[Dharwar]] were an important source of income and played an important role in the economy.<ref name="trade2">Altekar (1934), p355</ref> Diamonds were mined in Cudappah, Bellary, [[Kurnool]] and [[Golconda]]; the capital Manyakheta and Devagiri were important diamond and jewellery trading centres. The leather industry and tanning flourished in Gujarat and some regions of northern Maharashtra. [[Mysore]] with its vast elephant herds was important for the ivory industry.<ref name="trade3">From notes of Periplus, Al Idrisi and Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p357)</ref>

The Rashtrakuta empire controlled most of the western sea board of the subcontinent which facilitated its maritime trade.<ref name="trade1">Altekar (1934), p354</ref> The Gujarat branch of the empire earned a significant income from the port of Bharoch, one of the most prominent ports in the world at that time.<ref name="trade4">Altekar (1934), p358</ref> The empire's chief exports were cotton yarn, cotton cloth, muslins, hides, mats, indigo, incense, perfumes, [[betel nut]]s, coconuts, sandal, teak, timber, sesame oil and ivory. Its major imports were pearls, gold, dates from Arabia, slaves, [[Italian cuisine|Italian]] wines, tin, lead, [[topaz]], [[storax]], sweet clover, flint glass, [[antimony]], gold and silver coins, singing boys and girls (for the entertainment of the royalty) from other lands. Trading in horses was an important and profitable business, monopolised by the Arabs and some local merchants.<ref name="trade5">Altekar (1934), p358–359</ref> The Rashtrakuta government levied a shipping tax of one golden ''Gadyanaka'' on all foreign vessels embarking to any other ports and a fee of one silver ''Ctharna'' ( a coin) on vessels travelling locally.<ref name="trade21" />

Artists and craftsman operated as corporations (guilds) rather than as individual business. Inscriptions mention guilds of weavers, oilmen, artisans, basket and mat makers and fruit sellers. A [[Saundatti]] inscription refers to an assemblage of all the people of a district headed by the guilds of the region.<ref name="trade7">Altekar (1934), p368</ref> Some guilds were considered superior to others, just as some corporations were, and received royal charters determining their powers and privileges. Inscriptions suggest these guilds had their own militia to protect goods in transit and, like village assemblies, they operated banks that lent money to traders and businesses.<ref name="trade9">Altekar (1934), p370–371</ref>

The government's income came from five principal sources: regular taxes, occasional taxes, fines, income taxes, miscellaneous taxes and tributes from feudatories.<ref name="trade10">Altekar (1934), p223</ref> An emergency tax was imposed occasionally and were applicable when the kingdom was under duress, such as when it faced natural calamities, or was preparing for war or overcoming war's ravages. Income tax included taxes on [[crown land]], wasteland, specific types of trees considered valuable to the economy, mines, salt, treasures unearthed by prospectors.<ref name="trade11">Altekar (1934), p213</ref> Additionally, customary presents were given to the king or royal officers on such festive occasions as marriage or the birth of a son.<ref name="trade23">From the Davangere inscription of Santivarma of Banavasi-12000 province (Altekar 1934, p234</ref>

The king determined the tax levels based on need and circumstances in the kingdom while ensuring that an undue burden was not placed on the peasants.<ref name="trade14">From the writings of Chandesvara (Altekar 1934, p216)</ref> The land owner or tenant paid a variety of taxes, including land taxes, produce taxes and payment of the overhead for maintenance of the Gavunda (village head). Land taxes were varied, based on type of land, its produce and situation and ranged from 8% to 16%. A Banavasi inscription of 941 mentions reassessment of land tax due to the drying up of an old irrigation canal in the region.<ref name="trade15" /> The land tax may have been as high as 20% to pay for expenses of a military frequently at war.<ref name="trade16">From the notes of Al Idrisi (Altekar (1934), p223</ref> In most of the kingdom, land taxes were paid in goods and services and rarely was cash accepted.<ref name="trade18">From the Begumra plates of Krishna II (Altekar 1934, p227</ref> A portion of all taxes earned by the government (usually 15%) was returned to the villages for maintenance.<ref name="trade15">Altekar (1934), p222</ref>

Taxes were levied on artisans such as potters, sheep herders, weavers, oilmen, shopkeepers, stall owners, brewers and gardeners. Taxes on perishable items such as fish, meat, honey, medicine, fruits and essentials like fuel was as high as 16%.<ref name="trade21">Altekar (1934), p230</ref> Taxes on salt and minerals were mandatory although the empire did not claim sole ownership of mines, implying that private mineral prospecting and the quarrying business may have been active.<ref name="trade26">Altekar (1934), p242</ref> The state claimed all such properties whose deceased legal owner had no immediate family to make an inheritance claim.<ref name="trade27">From the writings of Somadeva (Altekar 1934, p244)</ref> Other miscellaneous taxes included ferry and house taxes. Only Brahmins and their temple institutions were taxed at a lower rate.<ref name="trade22">From the Hebbal inscriptions and Torkhede inscriptions of Govinda III (Altekar 1934, p232</ref>

==Culture==

===Religion===
The Rashtrakuta kings supported the popular religions of the day in the traditional spirit of religious tolerance.<ref name="tole">"Wide and sympathetic tolerance" in general characterised the Rashtrakuta rule (Altekar in Kamath 2001, p92)</ref> Scholars have offered various arguments regarding which specific religion the Rashtrakutas favoured, basing their evidence on [[Indian inscriptions|inscriptions]], coins and contemporary literature. Some claim the Rashtrakutas were inclined towards [[Jainism]] since many of the scholars who flourished in their courts and wrote in [[Sanskrit]], [[Kannada]] and a few in [[Apabhramsha]] and [[Prakrit]] were Jains.<ref name="writer">Kamath (2001), p92</ref> The Rashtrakutas built well-known Jain temples at locations such as Lokapura in [[Bagalkot district]] and their loyal feudatory, the [[Western Ganga Dynasty]], built Jain monuments at [[Shravanabelagola]] and [[Kambadahalli]]. Scholars have suggested that Jainism was a principal religion at the very heart of the empire, modern Karnataka, accounting for more than 30% of the population and dominating the culture of the region.<ref name="population">Altekar in Kamath (2001), p92</ref> King Amoghavarsha I was a disciple of the Jain [[acharya]] [[Jinasena]] and wrote in his religious writing, ''Prashnottara Ratnamalika'', "having bowed to Varaddhamana ([[Mahavira]]), I write Prashnottara Ratnamalika". The mathematician [[Mahavira (mathematician)|Mahaviracharya]] wrote in his ''Ganita Sarasangraha'', "The subjects under Amoghavarsha are happy and the land yields plenty of grain. May the kingdom of King Nripatunga Amoghavarsha, follower of Jainism ever increase far and wide." Amoghavarsha may have taken up Jainism in his old age.<ref name="grain">Reu (1933), p36</ref><ref name="grain1">The Vaishnava Rashtrakutas patronised Jainism (Kamath 2001, p92)</ref>

However, the Rashtrakuta kings also patronized [[Hinduism]]'s followers of the [[Shaivism|Shaiva]], [[Vaishnava]] and [[Shaktism|Shakta]] faiths. Almost all of their inscriptions begin with an invocation to god [[Vishnu]] or god [[Shiva]]. The [[Sanjan (Gujarat)|Sanjan]] inscriptions tell of King Amoghavarsha I sacrificing a finger from his left hand at the [[Mahalakshmi Temple (Kolhapur)|Lakshmi temple]] at [[Kolhapur]] to avert a calamity in his kingdom. King Dantidurga performed the ''Hiranyagarbha'' (horse sacrifice) and the Sanjan and [[Khambhat|Cambay]] plates of King [[Govinda IV]] mention [[Brahmin]]s performing such rituals as ''[[Rajasuya]]'', ''Vajapeya'' and ''Agnishtoma''.<ref name="ritual">Kamath (2001), p91</ref> An early [[copper plate grant]] of King Dantidurga (753) shows an image of god Shiva and the coins of his successor, King Krishna I (768), bear the legend ''Parama Maheshwara'' (another name for Shiva). The kings' titles such as ''Veeranarayana'' showed their Vaishnava leanings. Their flag had the sign of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers, perhaps copied from the Badami Chalukyas.<ref name="ganga">Reu (1933), p34</ref> The famous Kailasnatha temple at Ellora and other rock-cut caves attributed to them show that the Hinduism was flourishing.<ref name="ritual" /> Their family deity was a goddess by name ''Latana'' (also known as ''Rashtrashyena'', ''Manasa'' ''Vindyavasini'') who took the form of a falcon to save the kingdom.<ref name="falcon">Reu (1933, p34</ref> They built temples with icons and ornamentation that satisfied the needs of different faiths. The temple at Salotgi was meant for followers of Shiva and Vishnu and the temple at Kargudri was meant for worshipers of Shiva, Vishnu and Bhaskara ([[Surya]], the sun god).<ref name="writer" />

In short, the Rashtrakuta rule was tolerant to multiple popular religions, [[Jainism]], Vaishnavaism and Shaivism. [[Buddhism]] too found support and was popular in places such as [[Dambal]] and [[Balligavi]], although it had declined significantly by this time.<ref name="buddha">The Rise and Decline of [[Buddhism]] in India, K.L. Hazara, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1995, pp288–294</ref> The decline of Buddhism in South India began in the 8th century with the spread of [[Adi Shankara]]'s [[Advaita]] philosophy.<ref name="decrease">A 16th-century Buddhist work by Lama Taranatha speaks disparagingly of Shankaracharya as close parallels in some beliefs of Shankaracharya with Buddhist philosophy was not viewed favourably by Buddhist writers (Thapar 2003, pp 349–350, 397)</ref> [[Islamic]] contact with South India began as early as the 7th century, a result of trade between the Southern kingdoms and [[Arab]] lands. [[Jumu'ah|Jumma]] [[Masjid]]s existed in the Rashtrakuta empire by the 10th century<ref name="jumma">From the notes of 10th-century Arab writer Al-Ishtakhri (Sastri 1955, p396)</ref> and many Muslims lived and mosques flourished on the coasts, specifically in towns such as [[Kayalpattanam]] and [[Nagore]]. Muslim settlers married local women; their children were known as [[Mappila]]s (''Moplahs'') and were actively involved in [[horse trading]] and manning shipping fleets.<ref name="jumma1">From the notes of Masudi (916) (Sastri 1955, p396)</ref>

===Society===
{{See also|Society of Rashtrakuta empire of Manyakheta}}
Chronicles mention more [[caste]]s than the four commonly known castes in the Hindu social system, some as many as seven castes.<ref name="caste">From the notes of Magasthenesis and Strabo from Greece and Ibn Khurdadba and Al Idrisi from Arabia (Altekar 1934, p317)</ref> [[Al-Biruni]], the famed 10th century Persian / central Asian [[Indology|Indologist]] mentions sixteen castes including the four basic castes of [[Brahmins]], [[Kshatriya]], [[Vaishya]] and [[Sudras]].<ref name="caste1">From the notes of Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p317)</ref> The ''Zakaya'' or ''Lahud'' caste consisted of communities specialising in dance and acrobatics.<ref name="caste3">Altekar (1934), p318</ref> People in the professions of sailing, hunting, weaving, cobblery, basket making and fishing belonged to specific castes or subcastes. The ''Antyajas'' caste provided many menial services to the wealthy. Brahmins enjoyed the highest status in Rashtrakuta society; only those Kshatriyas in the ''Sat-Kshatriya'' sub-caste (noble Kshatriyas) were higher in status.<ref name="caste4">From the notes of Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p324)</ref><ref name="caste10">From the notes of Alberuni (Altekar 1934, pp330–331)</ref>

The careers of Brahmins usually related to education, the judiciary, astrology, mathematics, poetry and philosophy<ref name="caste6">From the notes of Alberuni, Altekar (1934) p325</ref> or the occupation of hereditary administrative posts.<ref name="caste7">From the notes of Abuzaid (Altekar 1934, p325)</ref> Also Brahmins increasingly practiced non-Brahminical professions (agriculture, trade in betel nuts and martial posts).<ref name="caste8">From the notes of Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p326)</ref> Capital punishment, although widespread, was not given to the royal Kshatriya sub-castes or to Brahmins found guilty of heinous crimes (as the killing of a Brahmin in medieval Hindu India was itself considered a heinous crime). As an alternate punishment to enforce the law a Brahmin's right hand and left foot was severed, leaving that person disabled.<ref name="caste9">Altekar (1934), p329</ref>

By the 9th century, kings from all the four castes had occupied the highest seat in the monarchical system in Hindu India.<ref name="caste11">From the notes of Yuan Chwang, Altekar (1934), p331</ref> Admitting Kshatriyas to [[Vedic period|Vedic]] schools along with Brahmins was customary, but the children of the Vaishya and [[Shudra]] castes were not allowed. Landownership by people of all castes is recorded in inscriptions<ref name="caste12">From the notes of Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p332, p334)</ref> Intercaste marriages in the higher castes were only between highly placed Kshatriya girls and Brahmin boys,<ref name="caste15">From the notes of Ibn Khurdadba (Altekar 1934, p337)</ref> but was relatively frequent among other castes.<ref name="caste16">From the notes of Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p337)</ref> Intercaste functions were rare and dining together between people of various castes was avoided.<ref name="caste17">From the notes of Al Masudi and Al Idrisi (Altekar 1934, p339)</ref>

Joint families were the norm but legal separations between brothers and even father and son have been recorded in inscriptions.<ref name="caste18">From the Tarkhede inscription of Govinda III, (Altekar 1934, p339)</ref> Women and daughters had rights over property and land as there are inscriptions recording the sale of land by women.<ref name="caste19">Altekar (1934), p341</ref> The arranged marriage system followed a strict policy of early marriage for women. Among Brahmins, boys married at or below 16 years of age and the brides chosen for them were 12 or younger. This age policy was not strictly followed by other castes.<ref name="caste20">From the notes of Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p342)</ref> [[Sati (practice)|Sati]] (a custom in which a dead man's widow would [[Self-immolation|immolate]] herself on her husband's funeral [[pyre]]) was practiced but the few examples noted in inscriptions were mostly in the royal families.<ref name="caste22">From the notes of Sulaiman and Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p343)</ref> The system of shaving the heads of widows was infrequent as epigraphs note that widows were allowed to grow their hair but decorating it was discouraged.<ref name="caste23">Altekar (1934), p345</ref> The remarriage of a widow was rare among the upper castes and more accepted among the lower castes.<ref name="caste24">From the notes of Ibn Khurdadba (Altekar 1934, p346)</ref>

In the general population men wore two simple pieces of cloth, a loose garment on top and a garment worn like a ''[[dhoti]]'' for the lower part of the body. Only kings could wear [[turban]]s, a practice that spread to the masses much later.<ref name="caste26">Altekar (1934), p349</ref> Dancing was a popular entertainment and inscriptions speak of royal women being charmed by dancers, both male and female, in the king's palace. [[Devadasi]]s (girls were "married" to a deity or temple) were often present in temples.<ref name="caste27">Altekar (1934), p350</ref> Other recreational activities included attending animal fights of the same or different species. The [[Atakur inscription]] ([[hero stone]], ''virgal'') was made for the favourite hound of the feudatory Western Ganga King Butuga II that died fighting a wild boar in a hunt.<ref name="caste29">Altekar (1934), p351</ref> There are records of game preserves for hunting by royalty. Astronomy and astrology were well developed as subjects of study,<ref name="caste29" /> and there were many superstitious beliefs such as catching a snake alive proved a woman's chastity. Old persons suffering from incurable diseases preferred to end their lives by drowning in the sacred waters of a pilgrim site or by a ritual burning.<ref name="caste30">From the notes of Ibn Kurdadba (Altekar 1934, p353)</ref>

===Literature===
{{See also|Rashtrakuta literature}}
[[File:Jain Narayana temple1 at Pattadakal.jpg|thumb|right|Jain Narayana temple at [[Pattadakal]], [[Karnataka]]]]
[[Kannada language|Kannada]] became more prominent as a literary language during the Rashtrakuta rule with its script and literature showing remarkable growth, dignity and productivity.<ref name="language2" /><ref name="Jaina_literature" /><ref name="Jaina_literature2" /> This period effectively marked the end of the classical Prakrit and Sanskrit era. Court poets and royalty created eminent works in Kannada and Sanskrit that spanned such literary forms as prose, poetry, rhetoric, the Hindu epics and the life history of Jain [[Tirthankara|tirthankars]]. Bilingual writers such as [[Asaga]] gained fame,<ref name="asaga">Warder A.K. (1988), p. 248</ref> and noted scholars such as the [[Mahāvīra (mathematician)|Mahaviracharya]] wrote on pure mathematics in the court of King Amoghavarsha I.<ref name="mahavira">Kamath (2001), p89</ref><ref name="ganita">"Mathematical Achievements of Pre-modern Indian Mathematicians", Putta Swamy T.K., 2012, chapter=Mahavira, p.231, Elsevier Publications, London, {{ISBN|978-0-12-397913-1}}</ref>

''[[Kavirajamarga]]'' (850) by King [[Amoghavarsha I]] is the earliest available book on rhetoric and poetics in Kannada,<ref name="rhetoric">Kamath (2001), p90</ref><ref name="rhetoric1" /> though it is evident from this book that native styles of Kannada composition had already existed in previous centuries.<ref name="amog">The ''Bedande'' and ''Chattana'' type of composition (Narasimhacharya 1988, p12)</ref> ''Kavirajamarga'' is a guide to poets (''Kavishiksha'') that aims to standardize these various styles. The book refers to early Kannada prose and poetry writers such as [[Durvinita]], perhaps the 6th-century monarch of [[Western Ganga dynasty]].<ref name="earlyprose">It is said ''Kavirajamarga'' may have been co-authored by Amoghavarsha I and court poet Sri Vijaya (Sastri 1955, pp355–356)</ref><ref name="earlyprose1">Other early writers mentioned in ''Kavirajamarga'' are Vimala, Udaya, Nagarjuna, Jayabhandu for Kannada prose and Kavisvara, Pandita, Chandra and Lokapala in [[Kannada]] poetry (Narasimhacharya 1988, p2)</ref><ref name="earlyprose2">Warder A.K. (1988), p240</ref>

The Jain writer [[Adikavi Pampa]], widely regarded as one of the most influential [[Kannada]] writers, became famous for ''[[Adipurana]]'' (941). Written in [[champu]] (mixed prose-verse style) style, it is the life history of the first Jain ''tirthankara'' [[Lord Rishabha|Rishabhadeva]]. Pampa's other notable work was ''[[Vikramarjuna Vijaya]]'' (941), the author's version of the Hindu epic, [[Mahabharata]], with [[Arjuna]] as the hero.<ref name="bharata">Sastri (1955), p356</ref> Also called ''Pampa Bharata'', it is a eulogy of the writer's patron, King [[Chalukyas of Vemulavada|Chalukya]] Arikeseri of [[Vemulwada, Karimnagar District|Vemulawada]] (a Rashtrakuta feudatory), comparing the king's virtues favorably to those of Arjuna. Pampa demonstrates such a command of classical Kannada that scholars over the centuries have written many interpretations of his work.<ref name="kanepic">L.S. Seshagiri Rao in Amaresh Datta (1988), p1180</ref>

Another notable Jain writer in Kannada was [[Sri Ponna]], patronised by King Krishna III and famed for ''Shantipurana'', his account of the life of Shantinatha, the 16th Jain tirthankara. He earned the title ''Ubhaya Kavichakravathi'' (supreme poet in two languages) for his command over both Kannada and Sanskrit. His other writings in Kannada were ''Bhuvanaika-ramaabhyudaya'', ''Jinaksharamale'' and ''Gatapratyagata''.<ref name="rhetoric" /><ref name="ubhaya">Narasimhacharya (1988, p18</ref> Adikavi Pampa and Sri Ponna are called "gems of Kannada literature".<ref name="bharata" />
[[File:Stanza from Kavirajamarga.svg|thumb|left|A stanza from the 9th century Kannada classic [[Kavirajamarga]], praising the people for their literary skills]]

Prose works in [[Sanskrit]] was prolific during this era as well.<ref name="Jaina_literature"/> Important mathematical theories and axioms were postulated by [[Mahavira (mathematician)|Mahaviracharya]], a native of [[Gulbarga]], who belonged to the Karnataka mathematical tradition and was patronised by King Amoghavarsha I.<ref name="mahavira"/> His greatest contribution was ''Ganitasarasangraha'', a writing in 9 chapters. Somadevasuri of 950 wrote in the court of [[Arikesari II]], a feudatory of Rashtrakuta [[Krishna III]] in [[Vemulwada, Karimnagar District|Vemulavada]]. He was the author of ''[[Yashastilaka|Yasastilaka champu]]'', ''Nitivakyamrita'' and other writings. The main aim of the ''champu'' writing was to propagate Jain tenets and ethics. The second writing reviews the subject matter of ''Arthashastra'' from the standpoint of Jain morals in a clear and pithy manner.<ref name="artha">Sastri (1955), p314</ref> Ugraditya, a Jain ascetic from Hanasoge in the modern Mysore district wrote a medical treatise called ''Kalyanakaraka''. He delivered a discourse in the court of Amoghavarsha I encouraging abstinence from animal products and alcohol in medicine.<ref name="cuisine">S.K. Ramachandra Rao, (1985), Encyclopedia of Indian Medicine: Historical perspective, pp100-101, Popular Prakashan, Mumbai, {{ISBN|81-7154-255-7}}</ref><ref name="veg">Narasimhachar (1988), p11</ref>

Trivikrama was a noted scholar in the court of King Indra III. His classics were ''Nalachampu'' (915), the earliest in champu style in Sanskrit, ''Damayanti Katha'', ''Madalasachampu'' and Begumra plates. Legend has it that Goddess [[Saraswati]] helped him in his effort to compete with a rival in the king's court.<ref name="artha" /> [[Jinasena]] was the spiritual preceptor and [[guru]] of [[Amoghavarsha I]]. A theologian, his contributions are ''Dhavala'' and ''Jayadhavala'' (written with another theologian [[Virasena]]). These writings are named after their patron king who was also called Athishayadhavala. Other contributions from Jinasena were ''Adipurana,'' later completed by his disciple Gunabhadra, ''Harivamsha'' and ''Parshvabhyudaya''.<ref name="mahavira"/>

===Architecture===
{{further|Ellora Caves}}
[[File:Kailasha temple at ellora.JPG|thumb|Kailasanath Temple at Ellora, Maharashtra|249x249px]]
The Rashtrakutas contributed much to the architectural heritage of the Deccan. Art historian Adam Hardy categorizes their building activity into three schools: Ellora, around Badami, Aihole and Pattadakal, and at Sirval near Gulbarga.<ref name="hardy1">Hardy (1995), p111</ref>
The Rashtrakuta contributions to art and architecture are reflected in the splendid rock-cut cave temples at Ellora and Elephanta, areas also occupied by Jain monks, located in present-day [[Maharashtra]]. The Ellora site was originally part of a complex of 34 Buddhist caves probably created in the first half of the 6th century whose structural details show [[Pandyan]] influence. Cave temples occupied by Hindus are from later periods.<ref name="rockcut">{{cite book
| first= K.V. Soundara
| last= Rajan
| year= 1998
| title= Rock-cut Temple Styles'
| publisher=Somaily Publications
| location=Mumbai, India
| pages= 19, 115–116
| isbn= 81-7039-218-7}}</ref>

The Rashtrakutas renovated these Buddhist caves and re-dedicated the rock-cut shrines. Amoghavarsha I espoused Jainism and there are five Jain cave temples at [[Ellora]] ascribed to his period.<ref>{{cite web|title=Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent|url=http://www.indoarch.org/place.php?placelink=R%3D4%2BS%3D15%2BP%3D180%2BM%3D962|author=Takeo Kamiya|publisher=Gerard da Cunha-Architecture Autonomous, India|access-date=18 April 2007}}</ref> The most extensive and sumptuous of the Rashtrakuta works at [[Ellora]] is their creation of the monolithic [[Ellora Kailasanathar Temple|Kailasanath Temple]], a splendid achievement confirming the "Balhara" status as "one among the four principal Kings of the world".<ref name="reded" /> The walls of the temple have marvellous sculptures from Hindu mythology including [[Ravana]], [[Shiva]] and [[Parvathi]] while the ceilings have paintings.

The Kailasanath Temple project was commissioned by King Krishna I after the Rashtrakuta rule had spread into South India from the Deccan. The architectural style used is ''Karnata Dravida'' according to Adam Hardy. It does not contain any of the ''Shikharas'' common to the ''Nagara'' style and was built on the same lines as the Virupaksha temple at [[Pattadakal]] in Karnataka.<ref name="Dravidian">{{cite web|title=Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent,20 September 1996 |url=http://www.indoarch.org/place.php?placelink=R%3D4%2BS%3D15%2BP%3D180%2BM%3D0|author=Takeo Kamiya|publisher=Gerard da Cunha-Architecture Autonomous, Bardez, Goa, India|access-date=10 November 2006}}</ref><ref name="hardy2">Hardy (1995), p327</ref> According to art historian Vincent Smith, the achievement at the Kailasanath temple is considered an architectural consummation of the monolithic rock-cut temple and deserves to be considered one of the wonders of the world.<ref name="Freak">Vincent Smith in {{cite web|title=Society, Religion and Economic condition in the period of Rashtrakutas|url=http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm|author=Arthikaje, Mangalore|publisher=1998–2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc|access-date=20 December 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061104095148/http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm <!--Added by H3llBot-->|archive-date=4 November 2006}}</ref> According to art historian Percy Brown, as an accomplishment of art, the Kailasanath temple is considered an unrivalled work of rock architecture, a monument that has always excited and astonished travellers.<ref name="rocky">Percy Brown and James Fergusson in {{cite web|title=Society, Religion and Economic condition in the period of Rashtrakutas|url=http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm|author=Arthikaje, Mangalore|publisher=1998–2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc|access-date=20 December 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061104095148/http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm <!--Added by H3llBot-->|archive-date=4 November 2006}}</ref>[[File:Kuknur Navalinga temples.JPG|thumb|left|Dravidian style architecture. Top view of Navalinga Temples at [[Kuknur]], [[Karnataka]]|292x292px]]While some scholars have claimed the architecture at [[Elephanta Caves|Elephanta]] is attributable to the [[Kalachuris of Mahishmati|Kalachuri]], others claim that it was built during the Rashtrakuta period.<ref name="others">Kamath (2001), p93</ref> Some of the sculptures such as ''Nataraja'' and ''Sadashiva'' excel in beauty and craftsmanship even that of the Ellora sculptures.<ref name="trinity">Arthikaje in {{cite web|title=Society, Religion and Economic condition in the period of Rashtrakutas|url=http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm|author=Arthikaje, Mangalore|publisher=1998–2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc|access-date=20 December 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061104095148/http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm <!--Added by H3llBot-->|archive-date=4 November 2006}}</ref> Famous sculptures at Elephanta include ''Ardhanarishvara'' and ''Maheshamurthy''. The latter, a three faced bust of Lord Shiva, is {{convert|25|ft|m|0}} tall and considered one of the finest pieces of sculpture in India. It is said that, in the world of sculpture, few works of art depicting a divinity are as balanced.<ref name="trinity-2">Grousset in {{cite web|title=Society, Religion and Economic condition in the period of Rashtrakutas|url=http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm|author=Arthikaje, Mangalore|publisher=1998–2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc|access-date=20 December 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061104095148/http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm <!--Added by H3llBot-->|archive-date=4 November 2006}}</ref> 

In [[Karnataka]] their most famous temples are the ''Kashivishvanatha'' temple and the Jain Narayana temple at [[Pattadakal]], a [[UNESCO]] World Heritage site.<ref name="karnataka_whs">{{cite web|title=Reclaiming past glory |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/archives/feb272007/spectrum1437452007226.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080518044912/http://www.deccanherald.com/archives/feb272007/spectrum1437452007226.asp |archive-date=18 May 2008|author=Vijapur, Raju S.|publisher=Spectrum|work=Deccan Herald|access-date=27 February 2007}}</ref><ref name="hardy10">Hardy (1995), p.341</ref> Other well-known temples are the Parameshwara temple at Konnur, Brahmadeva temple at Savadi, the Settavva, Kontigudi II, Jadaragudi and Ambigeragudi temples at [[Aihole]], Mallikarjuna temple at Ron, Andhakeshwara temple at Huli ([[Hooli]]), Someshwara temple at [[Sogal]], Jain temples at Lokapura, [[Navalinga Temple (Kukkanur)|Navalinga temple]] at [[Kuknur]], Kumaraswamy temple at Sandur, numerous temples at Shirival in [[Gulbarga]],<ref name="hardy1000">Hardy (1995), p344-345</ref> and the ''[[Trikuteshwara]]'' temple at [[Gadag]] which was later expanded by [[Kalyani Chalukyas]]. Archeological study of these temples show some have the stellar (multigonal) plan later to be used profusely by the [[Hoysalas]] at [[Belur, Karnataka|Belur]] and [[Halebidu]].<ref name="karnatakatemples">Sundara and Rajashekar, {{cite web|title=Society, Religion and Economic condition in the period of Rashtrakutas|url=http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm|author=Arthikaje, Mangalore|publisher=1998–2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc|access-date=20 December 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061104095148/http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm <!--Added by H3llBot-->|archive-date=4 November 2006}}</ref> One of the richest traditions in Indian architecture took shape in the Deccan during this time which Adam Hardy calls ''Karnata dravida'' style as opposed to traditional Dravida style.<ref name="Karnatadravida">Hardy (1995), p5 (introduction)</ref>

===Language===
[[File:Old Kannada inscription in the mantapa of Navalinga temple at Kuknur.jpg|thumb|right|9th century ''[[Old Kannada]]'' inscription at Navalinga temple in [[Kuknur]], Karnataka|286x286px]]
With the ending of the [[Gupta dynasty]] in northern India in the early 6th century, major changes began taking place in the Deccan south of the Vindyas and in the southern regions of India. These changes were not only political but also linguistic and cultural. The royal courts of peninsular India (outside of [[Tamilakam]]) interfaced between the increasing use of the local [[Kannada language]] and the expanding Sanskritic culture. Inscriptions, including those that were bilingual, demonstrate the use of Kannada as the primary administrative language in conjunction with Sanskrit.<ref name="language1"/><ref name="houb"/> Government archives used Kannada for recording pragmatic information relating to grants of land.<ref name="grant">Thapar (2002), pp393–4</ref> The local language formed the ''desi'' (popular) literature while literature in Sanskrit was more ''marga'' (formal). Educational institutions and places of higher learning (''ghatikas'') taught in Sanskrit, the language of the learned Brahmins, while Kannada increasingly became the speech of personal expression of devotional closeness of a worshipper to a private deity. The patronage Kannada received from rich and literate Jains eventually led to its use in the [[devotional movements]] of later centuries.<ref name="rich">Thapar (2002), p396</ref>

Contemporaneous literature and inscriptions show that Kannada was not only popular in the modern Karnataka region but had spread further north into present day southern Maharashtra and to the northern Deccan by the 8th century.<ref name="change">Vaidya (1924), p170</ref> Kavirajamarga, the work on poetics, refers to the entire region between the [[Kaveri River]] and the [[Godavari River]] as "[[Kannada]] country".<ref name="country">Sastri (1955), p355</ref><ref name="god1">Rice, E.P. (1921), p12</ref><ref name="god2">Rice, B.L. (1897), p497</ref> Higher education in Sanskrit included the subjects of [[Veda]], ''Vyakarana'' (grammar), ''Jyotisha'' (astronomy and astrology), ''Sahitya'' (literature), ''Mimansa'' (Exegesis), ''Dharmashastra'' (law), ''Puranas'' (ritual), and ''Nyaya'' (logic). An examination of inscriptions from this period shows that the ''[[Kavya]]'' (classical) style of writing was popular. The awareness of the merits and defects in inscriptions by the archivists indicates that even they, though mediocre poets, had studied standard classical literature in Sanskrit.<ref name="defect">Altekar (1934), p404</ref> An inscription in Kannada by King [[Krishna III]], written in a poetic Kanda metre, has been found as far away as [[Jabalpur]] in modern [[Madhya Pradesh]].<ref name="language" /> Kavirajamarga, a work on poetics in Kannada by [[Amoghavarsha I]], shows that the study of poetry was popular in the Deccan during this time. Trivikrama's Sanskrit writing, ''Nalachampu'', is perhaps the earliest in the ''champu'' style from the Deccan.<ref name="vikram">Altekar (1934), p408</ref>

{{Clear}}<gallery mode="packed" caption="[[Kailasa temple, Ellora]]" style="font-size:88%; line-height:130%; border-bottom:1px #aaa solid;" heights="210">
Ellora Caves, India, Kailash Temple, Majestic Interior.jpg|Interior and arcades
Ellora Cave 16 si0308.jpg|[[Kailasa temple, Ellora|Kailasa temple]], is one of the largest [[Indian rock-cut architecture|rock-cut]] ancient [[Hindu temple]]s located in [[Ellora Caves|Ellora]].
Indra Sabha Ellora Temple Maharashtra India.jpg|[[Shikhara]] of Indra Sabha at Ellora.
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Gadag]]
* [[Kalyani Chalukyas]]
* [[Kuknur]]
* [[Pattadakal]]
* [[Prithvi-vallabha]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==References==
'''Books'''
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book |last= [[Anant Sadashiv Altekar|Altekar]]|first= Anant Sadashiv |title=  The Rashtrakutas And Their Times; being a political, administrative, religious, social, economic and literary history of the Deccan during C. 750 A.D. to C. 1000 A.D|orig-year=1934|year=1934|publisher= Oriental Book Agency|location=Poona|oclc=3793499}}
*{{cite book |last1= Chopra|first1= P.N.|last2= Ravindran|first2= T.K.|last3=Subrahmanian|first3= N|title= History of South India (Ancient, Medieval and Modern) Part 1|orig-year=2003|year=2003|publisher= Chand Publications|location=New Delhi|isbn= 81-219-0153-7}}
*{{cite book |last= De Bruyne|first= J.L.|title=  Rudrakavis Great Poem of the Dynasty of Rastraudha|orig-year=1968|year= 1968|publisher= EJ Brill}}
*{{cite book |last=Dalby |first= Andrew |title= Dictionary of Languages: The Definitive Reference to More Than 400 Languages |orig-year=1998|year=2004|publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn = 0-231-11569-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Hardy|first=Adam |title=Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transformation-The Karnata Dravida Tradition 7th to 13th Centuries|orig-year=1995|year=1995|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn= 81-7017-312-4}}
*{{cite book |last= Houben|first= Jan E.M.|title= Ideology and Status of Sanskrit: Contributions to the History of the Sanskrit language |orig-year=1996|year= 1996|publisher= Brill|isbn= 90-04-10613-8}}
*{{cite book |last= Jain|first= K.C.|title= Bharatiya Digambar Jain Abhilekh|orig-year=2001|year= 2001|publisher= Digambar Jain Sahitya Samrakshan Samiti|location=Madhya Pradesh }}
*{{cite book |last= Kamath|first= Suryanath U.|title=  A concise history of Karnataka : from pre-historic times to the present|orig-year=1980|year= 2001|publisher= Jupiter books|location= Bangalore|oclc= 7796041 |lccn= 80905179}}
*{{cite book |last= Karmarkar|first= A.P.|title= Cultural history of Karnataka : ancient and medieval|orig-year=1947|year=1947|publisher= Karnataka Vidyavardhaka Sangha|location= Dharwar|oclc= 8221605 }}
*{{cite book |last= Keay|first= John|title= India: A History|orig-year=2000|year=2000|publisher= Grove Publications|location= New York|isbn= 0-8021-3797-0}}
*{{cite book |last= Majumdar|first= R.C.|title=  The Struggle for Empire|orig-year=1966|year= 1966|publisher= Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan}}
*{{cite book |last=Masica |first= Colin P.|title=The Indo-Aryan Languages |orig-year=1991|year=1991|publisher= Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge |isbn=0-521-29944-6 }}
*{{cite book |last= Narasimhacharya|first= R|title= History of Kannada Literature|url= https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.489059|orig-year=1988|year=1988|publisher= Asian Educational Services|location= New Delhi, Madras|isbn= 81-206-0303-6}}
*{{cite book |last= [[Bishweshwar Nath Reu|Reu]]|first= Pandit Bisheshwar Nath|title= History of the Rashtrakutas (Rathodas)|orig-year=1933|year=1997|publisher= Publication Scheme|location= Jaipur|isbn= 81-86782-12-5}}
*{{cite book |last= Pollock|first= Sheldon |title= The Language of the Gods in the World of Men: Sanskrit, Culture, and Power in Premodern India|orig-year=2006|year=2006 |publisher=University of California Press|location= Berkeley|isbn= 0-520-24500-8}}
*{{cite book |last= Rao|first=Seshagiri, L.S|editor=Amaresh Datta|title= Encyclopaedia of Indian literature&nbsp;– vol 2|orig-year=1988|year=1988|chapter=Epic (Kannada)|publisher= Sahitya Akademi|isbn=81-260-1194-7}}
*{{cite book |last= Rice|first= E.P.|title= Kannada Literature|orig-year=1921|year=1982|publisher= Asian Educational Services|location=New Delhi |isbn= 81-206-0063-0}}
*{{cite book |last= Rice|first= B.L.|title= Mysore Gazetteer Compiled for Government-vol 1|orig-year=1897|year=2001|publisher= Asian Educational Services|location= New Delhi, Madras|isbn= 81-206-0977-8}}
*{{cite book |last= Sastri|first= Nilakanta K.A.|title=  A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar|orig-year=1955|year=2002|publisher= Indian Branch, Oxford University Press|location= New Delhi|isbn= 0-19-560686-8}}
*{{cite book |last= Sen|first= Sailendra Nath |title=   Ancient Indian History and Civilization |orig-year=1999|year=1999|publisher= New Age Publishers|isbn=81-224-1198-3}}
*{{cite book |last= Singh|first=Upinder|title= A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India:From the Stone Age to the 12th Century|orig-year=2008|year=2008|publisher= Pearsons Education|location= India|isbn=978-81-317-1120-0}}
*{{cite book |last= Thapar|first= Romila|title= Penguin History of Early India: From origins to AD 1300|orig-year=2003|year=2003|publisher= Penguin|location= New Delhi|isbn= 0-14-302989-4}}
*{{cite book |last= Vaidya|first= C.V.|title=  History of Mediaeval Hindu India (Being a History of India from 600 to 1200 A.D.)|orig-year=1924|year=1979|publisher= Oriental Book Supply Agency|location= Poona|oclc= 6814734 }}
* {{cite book |last= Warder|first= A.K.|author-link= A. K. Warder|title=  Indian Kavya Literature|orig-year=1988|year=1988|publisher= Motilal Banarsidass|isbn= 81-208-0450-3}}
{{refend}}
'''Web'''
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite web|author=Arthikaje|title=The Rashtrakutas|url=http://www.ourkarnataka.com/states/history/historyofkarnataka18.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061104123203/http://www.ourkarnataka.com/states/history/historyofkarnataka18.htm|archive-date=4 November 2006 |publisher=OurKarnataka.Com|work=History of karnataka|access-date=31 December 2006}}
* {{cite web|last=Kamat|first=Jyotsna|url=http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/deccan/deckings.htm|title=The Rashtrakutas|access-date=3 February 2007|work=Dynasties of the Deccan}}
* {{cite web |last=Sastri & Rao|first=Shama & Lakshminarayan|url=http://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume_9/rashtrakutas.html|title=South Indian Inscriptions-Miscellaneous Inscriptions in Kannada|access-date=3 February 2007|work=Rashtrakutas}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Rashtrakuta Empire}}
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Rashtrakuta}}
* [http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110707080339/http://asi.nic.in/ Archaeological Survey of India]

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