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Water supply and sanitation in Ethiopia

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Ethiopia: Water and Sanitation
Data
Water coverage (broad definition) 38% (2008) [1]
Sanitation coverage (broad definition) 12% (2008) [1]
Continuity of supply (%) Mostly intermittent
Average urban water use (l/c/d) 30-60 (2006) [2]
Average urban water tariff (US$/m3) n/a
Share of household metering Low
Annual investment in WSS US$ 1/capita
Share of self-financing by utilities Nil
Share of tax-financing Low
Share of external financing High
Institutions
Decentralization Substantial, since 1995
National water and sanitation company None
Water and sanitation regulator None
Responsibility for policy setting Ministry of Water Resources (water supply) Ministry of Health (sanitation)
Sector law n/a
Number of urban service providers n/a
Number of rural service providers n/a

Access to water supply and sanitation in Ethiopia is one of the lowest in the world. While access has increased substantially with funding from external aid, much still remains to be done to achieve the Millennium Development Goal of halving the share of people without access to water and sanitation by 2015, to improve sustainability and to improve service quality.

Some factors inhibiting the achievement of these goals are the limited capacity of water bureaus in the country's nine regions and water desks in the 550 woredas; insufficient cost recovery for proper operation and maintenance; and different policies and procedures used by various donors, notwithstanding the Paris declaration on aid effectiveness.

In 2001 the government adopted a water and sanitation strategy that called for more decentralized decision-making; promoting the involvement of all stakeholders, including the private sector; increasing levels of cost recovery; as well as integrating water supply, sanitation and hygiene promotion activities. Implementation of the policy apparently is uneven. In 2005 the government announced highly ambitious targets to increase coverage in its Plan for Accelerated Sustained Development and to End Poverty (PADEP) for 2010. The investment needed to achieve the goal is about US$ 300 million per year, compared to actual investments of US$ 39 million in 2001-2002. While donors have committed substantial funds to the sector, effectively spending the money and to ensure the proper operation and maintenance of infrastructure built with these funds remain a challenge.

Water resources and use

Ethiopia has 12 river basins with an annual runoff volume of 122 billion m3 of water and an estimated 2.6 - 6.5 billion m3 of ground water potential. This corresponds to an average of 1575 m3 of physically available water per person per year, a relatively large volume. However, due to large spatial and temporal variations in rainfall and lack of storage, water is often not available where and when needed.[3] Only about 3% of water resources are used, of which only about 11% (0.3% of the total) is used for domestic water supply.[4]

The capital Addis Abeba's main source of drinking water is the Gafsara dam built during the Italian occuption and rehabilitated in 2009. Wells and another dam complement the supply.[5] [6] The city of Dire Dawa is supplied exclusively from groundwater which is highly polluted.[7] The situation is most dramatic in Harar where "a steady decrease of the level of Lake Alemaya has resulted in the complete closure of the treatment plant". Due to supply shortfall water vendors sell untreated water with extremely high prices.[8] The lake dries up because of local climate change, changes in land use in its basin and increased irrigation of Khat, a mild drug that is being grown for local consumption and export.[9] A pipeline is expected to bring water over a distance of 75 km from a well field near Dire Dawa to Harar.[10]

The great majority of the rural community water supply relies on groundwater through shallow wells, deep wells and springs. People who have no access to improved supply usually obtain water from rivers, unprotected springs and hand-dug wells.[3] Rainwater harvesting is also common.

Access

According to data from the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation of WHO and UNICEF, which are in turn based on data from various national surveys including the 2005 Ethiopia Demographic and Health Survey (DHS), access to an improved water source and improved sanitation was estimated as follows in 2008:

  • 38% for improved water supply (98% for urban areas and 26% for rural areas)
  • 12% for improved sanitation (29% in urban areas, 8% in rural areas)[1]

In 1990 access to improved water supply was estimated at only 17%, and access to improved sanitation was estimated at only 4%.[1] There thus has been a significant increase in access for water supply and sanitation, which spans both urban and rural areas.

In communities that lack access to an improved water source, women bear the brunt of the burden of collecting water. For example, according to an article by Tina Rosenberg for National Geographic, in the mountain-top village Foro in the Konso district of southwestern Ethiopia women make three to five round trips per day to fetch dirty water from the Koiro river. Each roundtrip lasts two to three hours and water is carried in "50-pound jerrycans".[11]

Service quality

Rationing and service interruptions are frequent.[12] There are no wastewater treatment plants in Ethiopia, so all wastewater collected in sewers is discharged without any treatment to the environment.

Responsibility for water supply and sanitation

For more details see: Regions of Ethiopia

In order to understand responsibilities in the sector it is necessary to provide a brief overview of local government in Ethiopia. Ethiopia is a federal state consisting of the following subdivisions:

  • nine ethnically based regions or Kililoch with a population between 200,000 and 25 million each;
  • 68 Zones with a population between 100,000 and a few million each;
  • 550 Woredas or districts, with a population between 10,000 and more than 300,000 each;
  • A large number of Kebeles, which constitute the smallest administrative units in Ethiopia.

In addition to the nine regions there are two “chartered cities”, (Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa), where the lower-level administrative units mentioned above do not exist. There is wide disparity in development and institutional capacity between regions and also within regions. The Amhara, Oromia, Tigray regions as well as the small Harari region are relatively developed. About 70% of Ethiopians live in these four regions. The Southern Nations, where about 20% of the population lives, is very heterogenous. In the more pastoralist and remote “emerging” regions Somali, Afar, Gambella and Benishangul-Gumuz, where about 10% of the population lives, capacity tends to be lowest.[12]

Policy and regulation

There are strong national water supply and sanitation policies and key agencies have clear roles and strategies.[13] National policies are set by the Ministry of Water Resources (MWR) for water supply and by the Ministry of Health for sanitation. In October 2006 a Memorandum of Understanding has been signed by both Ministries, as well as by the Ministry of the Environment, to clearly define the roles and responsibilities of each Ministry.[14] Regional Water Bureaus and Woreda Water Desks are in charge of investment planning, monitoring and technical assistance to service providers. Their capacity to fulfill these tasks is sometimes limited.

Water supply

Formally the MWR's mandate covers only water resources management and it has no legal mandate concerning drinking water supply. Nevertheless, de facto it is the entity in charge of setting policies for water supply and to channel donor funds in the sector to local government entities. MWR has 737 employees in eight departments and 10 "services". One of the eight departments is the Water Supply and Sewerage Department.[15] Since 2006 Asfaw Dingamo is the Minister of Water Resources.[16]

In 2001 the government adopted a National Water Strategy prepared by the MWR. The overall strategy includes a water resources strategy, a hydropower development strategy, a water supply and sanitation strategy, and an irrigation strategy.[17]

Concerning water supply and sanitation, the strategy aims at:

  • More decentralized decision-making
  • Promoting the involvement of all stakeholders, including the private sector
  • Increasing levels of cost recovery
  • Integrating water supply, sanitation and hygiene promotion activities.

The strategy document does not include a diagnostic of the current situation. The water and sanitation part of the strategy alone includes 44 recommendations concerning technical, institutional, capacity building, social, economic and environmental issues. There is no priorization between the recommendations and the strategy does not establish mechanisms to monitor the implementation of the strategy.

Sanitation

The Ministry of Health is in charge of policies related to sanitation and hygiene promotion. It has adopted a Sanitation and Hygiene Promotion Strategy.[18] De facto sewers in urban areas are under the responsibility of the MWR, while the promotion of on-site sanitation is the responsibility of the Ministry of Health. The Sanitation and Hygiene Promotion Strategy has re-focused government resources on the promotion of pro-poor, low-cost practices.[13]

Service provision

In the capital the Addis Ababa Water and Sewer Authority provides water and sewer services. In other cities and small towns Town Water Boards are responsible for service provision. They are expected to contract out service provision to private operators. In rural areas community water and sanitation committees operate water systems and promote sanitation. Not all the local committees are registered, which is a prerequisite to open a bank account to hold funds collected from users. Local committees are supported by Woreda Water Desks.

Other

Regional water resources development bureaus play an important role in planning investments at the regional level and in capacity building.

The Ethiopian Social Rehabilitation and Development Fund (ERSDF) – a Social Fund established in 1996 - is also an important actor, especially in rural areas. It has financed almost 2,000 rural water projects serving about 2.5 million people. However, the government has decided to phase out the ERSDF and to re-deploy its staff to other institutions.[18]

History and recent developments

Until 1995 the national government had been responsible for centrally planning and implementing water and sanitation projects. Under the 1995 constitution Ethiopia became a federal state, which implied the decentralization of many functions to lower levels of government. This process has now been under way for more than a decade, but decentralization has been hampered by the limited capacity of local government to carry out its new responsibilities.

Also in 1995, a Ministry of Water Resources was created, taking over many of the responsibilities of the water resources department of the former Ministry of Public Works.[18]

In 1999 the government adopted a National Water Resources Management Policy, which was followed by the establishment of a Water Resources Development Fund (2002) and a Water Sector Development Program. The latter includes a water supply and sewerage development program (nota bene the focus on sewerage and thus the absence of on-site sanitation from the program).

The government’s Plan for Accelerated Sustained Development and to End Poverty (PADEP), covering the period 2005-2010, aimed at increasing access to an improved water source to 84% and access to improved sanitation to 80% by 2010. These ambitious targets go well beyond the water and sanitation targets of the Millennium Development Goals, which aim at halving the share of people without access by 2015. Since in 2008 access to an improved water source was 38% and to improved sanitation 12% it seems that these targets cannot be met.

Tariffs and cost recovery

On average cost recovery is too low to recover operating costs, not to speak of providing adequate maintenance of facilities.[19] Recurrent expenditures - estimated at US$ 29 million in 2001-02 - were financed primarily through user charges (64%), as well as by subsidies from the regional governments (31%) and the federal government (5%).[20] Despite this overall bleak picture, a few service providers recover all operating costs and generate a modest cash surplus.

The National Water Resources Management Policy aims at full cost recovery for urban systems and recovery of operation and maintenance costs for rural systems. It is not clear if progress has been made to achieve this ambitious objective since the policy was adopted.

Investment and financing

Investment

There are no reliable estimates of actual investment levels in the sector, and available estimates vary greatly. A detailed estimate of investment and financial flows in the Ethiopian water sector was carried out by the World Bank's Water and Sanitation Program (WSP) for the financial year 2001-02. It estimated total sector investments at US$ 39 million or less than half a dollar per capita, being one of the lowest recorded sector investment levels in the world.[20]

The government estimates that annual investments in the 2006-2015 period will reach about US$ 100 million per year, or about two and a half times their level in 2001-2002. This projection is based on funding commitments made by donors and the government.[14] It thus does not take into account bottlenecks in implementation due to limited capacities or other potential pitfalls. The World Bank projects the 2008 investment level at US$ 100 million, including resources from a 5-year US$ 100 million World Bank loan for urban water supply and sanitation approved in 2007.

The World Bank has estimated that the annual cost of achieving the government’s targets to increase coverage until 2010 are about US$ 400 million “in the first few years” and falling to US$ 200 million “in later years”. A detailed estimate by the government as part of its MDG Needs Assessment Report estimated investment needs at US$ 297 million per year for the period 2006-2015, roughly in line with the World Bank estimate.[14]

Financing

Sources. According to the WSP estimate quoted above, in 2001-2002 only 9% of sector investments were funded by the federal budget, 55% through the regional budget, 33% off-budget by NGOs, 2% by the ERSDF and 1% by other sources.[20] This estimate does not include community in-kind contributions, which are high for rural water supply and sanitation. A high but unknown share of the federal budget and probably also of the Woreda budget devoted to the sector is funded by donors. Concerning projected investments for 2006–2015, it is estimated that 12% (US$ 12 million) will be funded by the government with its own resources, 15% (US$ 16 million) by communities and 73% (US$ 75 million) by donors. It is not clear if this estimate includes off-budget support by NGOs. Because of the different categories used, a comparison between the historical and projected sources of financing is not possible.[14]

Processes. The financing system has evolved in line with the policy of decentralization. Thus, for example, the country's 550 Woredas now receive block grants from the central government and then can decide autonomously how to use these grants within broad criteria set by the Water Resources Development Fund (WRDF).[12] The WRDF is administered by a Board that is responsible to the MWR and is funded through budgetary allocations and donor funds.

External cooperation

Donors finance numerous projects in water supply and sanitation in Ethiopia – some through the Federal Government and some directly to regions, towns and communities. The donors have established a technical working group (TWG) on water as part of a core donor group called the Development Assistance Group.[21] A Multi-Stakeholder Forum is also supported through the European Union Water Initiative.[13] Despite improved coordination, donors still use different implementation arrangements. As a result, according to the World Bank, transaction cost are high.[12]

Important donors in the sector are the African Development Bank, CIDA, the British DFID, the EU, FINIDA, AFD from France, Germany (through GTZ and KfW), JICA, the Netherlands, UNDP, UNICEF and the World Bank. There are also about 500 local and foreign NGOs, many of which are active in water supply and sanitation.[18]

The African Development Bank provided a US$64 million grant for rural water supply and sanitation approved in 2005[18]

WaterAid is engaged in Ethiopia since 1983. It works closely with established local non governmental organisations (NGOs). In Oromia Region, water projects tend to be spring-fed gravity schemes, some of which are very large, providing water for tens of thousands of people. In Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region schemes have included deep boreholes as water is sometimes only found below 200 metres.[22] For example, in the village of Orbesho residents - mainly women - built themselves an access road to allow drilling equipment to be brought in, dug trenches for pipes and collected stones for structures.[11] In Amhara and Tigray the main technologies have been hand-dug wells and spring development. In Benishangul-Gumuz rope pumps are also used. In sanitation, WaterAid supports the construction and use of latrines. Hygiene education has increasingly focused on the close links between proper handwashing at critical times, like before eating and after going to the toilet, and improved health. In all cases WaterAid works closely with communities from the start. Particular attention is now being paid to engaging women. Since 1998 WaterAid has also been engaged in the slum areas of Addis Ababa. Projects include establishing communal water points linked to the city's piped systems, as well as shower and latrine blocks.[22]

The World Bank provided a US$ 100 million credit/grant for urban water supply and sanitation approved in 2007.[23] and a US$ 100 million credit for water supply and sanitation in 2004.[24] In March 2010, the World Bank approved additional financing of US$ 80 million for the 2004 water supply and sanitation project. According to the World Bank, until 2010 the original project had financed the construction oft 1288 hand dug wells, 835 protected springs, 576 shallow wells, 99 deep wells, 75 rural piped systems and 35 rainwater harvesting, as well as conducting hygiene and sanitation promotion. In rural areas alone, according to the World Bank the project facilitated access to clean water and improved sanitation facilities to about 1.4 million people. In urban areas, the project provided "immediate service improvement" in 87 towns which benefited about 143,000 people.[25]

See also

Sources

References

  1. ^ a b c d Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation:Ethiopia 2008 estimates, accessed on 18 September 2010
  2. ^ The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNET):Utility Search The range is for the five utilities serving Addis Abeba, Dire Dawa, Harar, Mekelle and Adama; accessed on September 19, 2010
  3. ^ a b International Water Management Institute:Water Resources and Irrigation Development in Ethiopia, Working Paper 123, by Seleshi Bekele Awulachew, Aster Denekew Yilma, Makonnen Loulseged, Willibald Loiskandl, Mekonnen Ayana and Tena Alamirew, 2007
  4. ^ World Resources Institute:Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems COUNTRY PROFILE - Ethiopia, accessed on September 10, 2010, withdrawal data are for 1987
  5. ^ Jigjiga TV News:Gafarsa Water Dam Project Completed, 16 August 2009
  6. ^ UN Habitat:Water for African Cities:Addis Ababa City Programme, retrieved on 25 September 2010
  7. ^ UN Habitat:Water for African Cities:Dire Dawa City Programme, retrieved on 25 September 2010
  8. ^ UN Habitat:Water for African Cities:Harar City Programme, retrieved on 25 September 2010
  9. ^ UNEP Atlas of our changing environment:Lake Alemaya, Ethiopia, 12 June 2008, retrieved on 26 September 2010
  10. ^ African Development Bank:Harar Water Supply & Sanitation Project, approved on September 4, 2002, retrieved on September 27, 2010
  11. ^ a b National Geographic:The Burden of Thirst, by Tina Rosenberg, April 2010, retrieved on September 27, 2010
  12. ^ a b c d World Bank:Water supply and sanitation project, Project Appraisal Document, 2004, p. 24-25, accessed on September 27, 2010
  13. ^ a b c USAID:Ethiopia Water and Sanitation Profile, ca. 2007, accessed on September 18, 2010
  14. ^ a b c d AMCW/AfDB/EUWI/WSP/UNDP: Getting Africa on Track to meet the MDGs on Water and Sanitation - A Status Overview of Sixteen African Countries, 2006, p. 21
  15. ^ UN Economic Commission for Africa MWR
  16. ^ Ministry of Water Resources
  17. ^ National Water Strategy
  18. ^ a b c d e African Development Bank:Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project, Appraisal Report, December 2005 (broken link)
  19. ^ World Bank 2007 Urban water supply and sanitation project accessed on September 27, 2010
  20. ^ a b c Water and Sanitation Program: Ethiopia Water Supply Sector Resource Flows Assessment 2004, accessed on September 18, 2010, p. 4
  21. ^ Development Assistance Group Ethiopia:Thematic Area Water, accessed on September 19, 2010
  22. ^ a b WaterAid:Where we work:Ethiopia, retrieved on September 27, 2010
  23. ^ World Bank:Project Appraisal Document:Urban Water Suppply and Sanitation Project, 2007
  24. ^ World Bank:Project Appraisal Document:Ethiopia Water Supply and Sanitation Project, 2004
  25. ^ World Bank:Water Supply and Sanitation Project-Additional Financing, Project Information Document, retrieved on September 27, 2010
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