Location via proxy:   [ UP ]  
[Report a bug]   [Manage cookies]                
Jump to content

SIDS

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see SIDS (disambiguation).

Sudden infant death syndrome
Other names
  • Cot death
  • crib death
Safe to Sleep logo
The Safe to Sleep campaign encourages having infants sleep on their back to reduce the risk of SIDS.
Specialty
Usual onsetOne to four months in age[1]
CausesUnknown
Risk factors
Diagnostic method
Differential diagnosis
Prevention
Frequency1 in 1,000–10,000

Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), sometimes known as cot death or crib death, is the sudden unexplained death of a child of less than one year of age. Diagnosis requires that the death remain unexplained even after a thorough autopsy and detailed death scene investigation.[2] SIDS usually occurs during sleep.[3] Typically death occurs between the hours of midnight and 9:00a.m.[4] There is usually no noise or evidence of struggle.[5] SIDS remains the leading cause of infant mortality in Western countries, constituting half of all post-neonatal deaths.[6]

The exact cause of SIDS is unknown.[7] The requirement of a combination of factors including a specific underlying susceptibility, a specific time in development, and an environmental stressor has been proposed.[3][7] These environmental stressors may include sleeping on the stomach or side, overheating, and exposure to tobacco smoke.[7] Accidental suffocation from bed sharing (also known as co-sleeping) or soft objects may also play a role.[3][8] Another risk factor is being born before 37 weeks of gestation.[1] Between 1% and 5% of SIDS cases are estimated to be misidentified infanticides caused by intentional suffocation.[9][10] SIDS makes up about 80% of sudden and unexpected infant deaths (SUIDs).[3] The other 20% of cases are often caused by infections, genetic disorders, and heart problems.[3]

The most effective method of reducing the risk of SIDS is putting a child less than one year old on their back to sleep.[1] Other measures include a firm mattress separate from but close to caregivers, no loose bedding, a relatively cool sleeping environment, using a pacifier, and avoiding exposure to tobacco smoke.[11] Breastfeeding and immunization may also be preventative.[11][12] Measures not shown to be useful include positioning devices and baby monitors.[11][12] Evidence is not sufficient for the use of fans.[11] Grief support for families affected by SIDS is important, as the death of the infant is unexpected, unexplained, and can cause suspicion that the infant may have been intentionally harmed.[3]

Rates of SIDS vary nearly tenfold in developed countries from one in a thousand to one in ten thousand.[3][13] Globally, it resulted in about 19,200 deaths in 2015, down from 22,000 deaths in 1990.[14] SIDS was the third leading cause of death in children less than one year old in the United States in 2011.[15] It is the most common cause of death between one month and one year of age.[1] About 90% of cases happen before six months of age, with it being most frequent between two months and four months of age.[3][1] It is more common in boys than girls.[1] Rates of SIDS have decreased by up to 80% in areas with "Safe to Sleep" campaigns.[13]

Definition

[edit]
Video explanation

The syndrome applies only to infants under one year of age.[16] SIDS is a diagnosis of exclusion and should be applied to only those cases in which an infant's death is sudden and unexpected, and remains unexplained after the performance of an adequate postmortem investigation, including:

  1. an autopsy (by an experienced pediatric pathologist, if possible);
  2. investigation of the death scene and circumstances of the death; and
  3. exploration of the medical history of the infant and family.

After investigation, some of these infant deaths are found to be caused by suffocation, hyperthermia or hypothermia, neglect or some other defined cause.[17]

Australia and New Zealand shifted to sudden unexpected death in infancy (SUDI) for professional, scientific, and coronial clarity:

The term SUDI is now often used instead of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) because some coroners prefer to use the term 'undetermined' for a death previously considered to be SIDS. This change is causing diagnostic shift in the mortality data.[18]

In addition, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention have proposed that such deaths be called sudden unexpected infant deaths (SUID) and that SIDS is a subset of SUID.[19]

Age

[edit]

SIDS has a four-parameter lognormal age distribution that spares infants shortly after birth—the time of maximal risk for almost all other causes of non-trauma infant death.

By definition, SIDS deaths occur under the age of one year, with the peak incidence occurring when the infant is two to four months old. This is considered a critical period because the infant's ability to rouse from sleep is not yet mature.[3]

Risk factors

[edit]

The exact cause of SIDS is unknown.[7] Although studies have identified risk factors for SIDS, such as putting infants to bed on their bellies, there has been little understanding of the syndrome's biological process or its potential causes. Deaths from SIDS are unlikely to be due to a single cause, but rather to multiple risk factors.[20] The frequency of SIDS does appear to be influenced by social, economic, or cultural factors, such as maternal education, race or ethnicity, or poverty.[21] SIDS is believed to occur when an infant with an underlying biological vulnerability, who is at a critical development age, is exposed to an external trigger.[3] The following risk factors generally contribute either to the underlying biological vulnerability or represent an external trigger:

Tobacco smoke

[edit]

SIDS rates are higher in babies of mothers who smoke during pregnancy.[22][23] Between no smoking and smoking one cigarette a day, on average, the risk doubles. About 22% of SIDS in the United States is related to maternal smoking.[24] SIDS correlates with levels of nicotine and its derivatives in the baby.[25] Nicotine and derivatives cause alterations in neurodevelopment.[26]

Sleeping

[edit]

Placing an infant to sleep while lying on the belly or side rather than on the back increases the risk for SIDS.[11][27] This increased risk is greatest at two to three months of age.[11] Elevated or reduced room temperature also increases the risk,[28] as does excessive bedding, clothing, soft sleep surfaces, and stuffed animals in the bed.[29] Bumper pads may increase the risk of SIDS due to the risk of suffocation. They are not recommended for children under one year of age, as this risk of suffocation greatly outweighs the risk of head bumping or limbs getting stuck in the bars of the crib.[11]

Sharing a bed with parents or siblings increases the risk for SIDS.[30] This risk is greatest in the first three months of life, when the mattress is soft, when one or more persons share the infant's bed, especially when the bed partners are using drugs or alcohol or are smoking.[11] The risk remains, however, even in parents who do not smoke or use drugs.[31] The American Academy of Pediatrics thus recommends "room-sharing without bed-sharing", stating that such an arrangement can decrease the risk of SIDS by up to 50%. Furthermore, the academy has recommended against devices marketed to make bed-sharing "safe", such as "in-bed co-sleepers".[32]

Room sharing as opposed to solitary sleeping is known to decrease the risk of SIDS.[33]

Breastfeeding

[edit]

Breastfeeding is associated with a lower risk of SIDS.[34] It is not clear if co-sleeping among mothers who breastfeed without any other risk factors increases SIDS risk.[35]

Pregnancy and infant factors

[edit]

SIDS rates decrease with increasing maternal age, with teenage mothers at greatest risk.[22] Delayed or inadequate prenatal care also increases risk.[22] Low birth weight is a significant risk factor. In the United States from 1995 to 1998, the SIDS death rate for infants weighing 1000–1499 g was 2.89/1000, while for a birth weight of 3500–3999 g, it was only 0.51/1000.[36][37] Premature birth increases the risk of SIDS death roughly fourfold.[22][36] From 1995 to 1998, the U.S. SIDS rate for births at 37–39 weeks of gestation was 0.73/1000, while the SIDS rate for births at 28–31 weeks of gestation was 2.39/1000.[36]

Anemia has also been linked to SIDS[38] (however, per item 6 in the list of epidemiologic characteristics below, extent of anemia cannot be evaluated at autopsy because an infant's total hemoglobin can only be measured during life).[39] SIDS incidence rises from zero at birth, is highest from two to four months of age, and declines toward zero after the infant's first year.[40]

Genetics

[edit]

Genetics plays a role, as SIDS is more prevalent in males.[41][42] There is a consistent 50% male excess in SIDS per 1000 live births of each sex. Given a 5% male excess birth rate, there appears to be 3.15 male SIDS cases per 2 female cases, for a male fraction of 0.61.[41][42] This value of 61% in the US is an average of 57% black male SIDS, 62.2% white male SIDS and 59.4% for all other races combined. Note that when multiracial parentage is involved, infant race is arbitrarily assigned to one category or the other; most often it is chosen by the mother. The X-linkage hypothesis for SIDS and the male excess in infant mortality have shown that the 50% male excess might be related to a dominant X-linked allele, occurring with a frequency of 1⁄3 that is protective against transient cerebral anoxia. An unprotected male would occur with a frequency of 2⁄3 and an unprotected female would occur with a frequency of 4⁄9.

About 10 to 20% of SIDS cases are believed to be due to channelopathies, which are inherited defects in the ion channels which play an important role in the contraction of the heart.[43]

Genetic evidence published in November 2020 concerning the case of Kathleen Folbigg, who was imprisoned for the death of her children, showed that at least two of the children had genetic mutations in the CALM2 gene that predisposed them to heart complications.[44] Kathleen was pardoned 5 June 2023 after spending 20 years in jail.[45]

Alcohol

[edit]

Drinking of alcohol by parents is linked to SIDS.[46] One study found a positive correlation between the two during New Years celebrations and weekends.[47] Another found that alcohol use disorder was linked to a more than doubling of risk.[48]

Other

[edit]

A 2022 study found that infants who died of SIDS exhibited significantly lower specific activity of butyrylcholinesterase, an enzyme involved in the brain's arousal pathway, shortly after birth. This can serve as a biomarker to identify infants with a potential autonomic cholinergic dysfunction and elevated risk for SIDS.[49][50][51]

SIDS has been linked to cold weather, with this association believed to be due to over-bundling and thus, overheating.[52] Premature babies are at four times the risk of SIDS, possibly related to an underdeveloped ability to automatically control the cardiovascular system.[53]

A 2-part edition of The Cook Report from 1994 claimed that antimony- and phosphorus-containing compounds used as fire retardants in PVC and other cot mattress materials were a cause of SIDS. Subsequent investigation by an Expert Panel led by Lady Limerick found that there was no evidence to support this claim.[54] The report also states that toxic gas cannot be generated from antimony in mattresses and that babies had SIDS on mattresses that did not contain the compound.

It has been suggested that some cases of SIDS may be related to Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli infections.[55]

Diagnosis

[edit]

Differential diagnosis

[edit]

Some conditions that are often undiagnosed and could be confused with or comorbid with SIDS include:

For example, an infant with MCAD deficiency might die by "classical SIDS" if found swaddled and prone, with its head covered, in an overheated room where parents were smoking. Genes indicating susceptibility to MCAD and Long QT syndrome do not protect an infant from dying of classical SIDS. Therefore, the presence of a susceptibility gene, such as for MCAD, means the infant might have died either from SIDS or from MCAD deficiency. It is currently impossible for a pathologist to distinguish between them.

A 2010 study looked at 554 autopsies of infants in North Carolina that listed SIDS as the cause of death, and suggested that many of these deaths may have been due to accidental suffocation. The study found that 69% of autopsies listed other possible risk factors that could have led to death, such as unsafe bedding or sleeping with adults.[63]

Several instances of infanticide have been uncovered in which the diagnosis was originally SIDS.[64][65] Since an autopsy is often unable to determine whether asphyxiation is caused intentionally, medical practitioners rely on patient and family history and evidence of prior abuse to identify cases of infanticide.[9] Some estimates in the 1980s and 1990s placed the potential rate of SIDS deaths caused by maltreatment around 10% and as high as 40%, but data from interventions such as the Safe to Sleep campaign suggests that these figures were substantially inflated.[10] In 2006 the American Academy of Pediatrics estimated that between 1% and 5% of SIDS cases were potentially attributable to undiagnosed infanticide.[9]

Some have underestimated the risk of two SIDS deaths occurring in the same family; the Royal Statistical Society issued a media release refuting expert testimony in one UK case, in which the conviction was subsequently overturned.[66]

Prevention

[edit]

A number of measures have been found to be effective in preventing SIDS, including changing the sleeping position to supine, breastfeeding, limiting soft bedding, immunizing the infant and using pacifiers.[11][67] The use of electronic monitors has not been found to be useful as a preventative strategy.[11] The effect that fans might have on the risk of SIDS has not been studied well enough to make any recommendation about them.[11] Evidence regarding swaddling is unclear regarding SIDS.[11] A 2016 review found tentative evidence that swaddling increases the risk of SIDS, especially among babies placed on their bellies or sides while sleeping.[68]

Measures not shown to be useful include positioning devices and baby monitors.[11][12] In the United States, companies that sell the monitors do not have FDA approval for them as medical devices.[69]

Sleep positioning

[edit]
SIDS rate from 1988 to 2006 (U.S.)

Sleeping on the back has been found to reduce the risk of SIDS.[70] It is thus recommended by the American Academy of Pediatrics and promoted as a best practice by the US National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) "Safe to Sleep" campaign. The incidence of SIDS has fallen in a number of countries in which this recommendation has been widely adopted.[71] Sleeping on the back does not appear to increase the risk of choking, even in those with gastroesophageal reflux disease.[11] While infants in this position may sleep more lightly, this is not harmful.[11] Sharing the same room as the parents but in a different bed may decrease the SIDS risk by half.[11]

Pacifiers

[edit]

The use of pacifiers appears to decrease the risk of SIDS,[quantify] although the reason is unclear.[11] The American Academy of Pediatrics considers pacifier use to prevent SIDS to be reasonable.[11] Pacifiers do not appear to affect breastfeeding in the first four months, even though this is a common misconception.[72]

Bedding

[edit]

Product safety experts advise against using pillows, overly soft mattresses, sleep positioners, bumper pads (crib bumpers), stuffed animals, or fluffy bedding in the crib, and recommend instead dressing the child warmly and keeping the crib "naked."[73]

Due to the obvious dangers, experts have also warned that blankets or other clothing not be placed over a baby's head.[74]

The use of a "baby sleep bag" or "sleep sack", a soft bag with holes for the baby's arms and head, can be used as a type of bedding that warms the baby without covering its head.[75]

Vaccination

[edit]

Infants typically receive several vaccinations between the ages of 2 and 4 months, which is also the peak age for SIDS. Due to this coincidence, a number of studies have investigated the possible role of vaccinations as a cause of SIDS. These have found either no relation between vaccinations and SIDS, or a reduction of the risk of SIDS following vaccination.[76][77][78][79][80][81] A 2007 meta-analysis found that vaccinations were associated with a halving of the risk of SIDS, and argued that immunisation should be a part of SIDS prevention campaigns.[79][82]

Epidemiology

[edit]
Arcutio, a device designed to prevent infant death by suffocation, Philosophical Transactions 422 (1732)

Globally, SIDS resulted in about 22,000 deaths as of 2010, down from 30,000 deaths in 1990.[83] Rates vary significantly by population from 0.05 per 1000 in Hong Kong to 6.7 per 1000 in Native Americans.[84]

SIDS was responsible for 0.54 deaths per 1,000 live births in the US in 2005.[36] It is responsible for far fewer deaths than congenital disorders and disorders related to short gestation, though it is the leading cause of death in healthy infants after one month of age.

SIDS deaths in the US decreased from 4,895 in 1992 to 2,247 in 2004, a 54% decrease.[85] During a similar time period, 1989 to 2004, SIDS as the cause of death for sudden infant death (SID) decreased from 80% to 55%, a 31% decrease.[85] According to John Kattwinkel, chairman of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Special Task Force on SIDS "A lot of us are concerned that the rate (of SIDS) isn't decreasing significantly, but that a lot of it is just code shifting".[85]

Race

[edit]
Rates of SIDS by race/ethnicity in the U.S., 2009, CDC, 2013

In 2013, there were persistent disparities in SIDS deaths among racial and ethnic groups in the U.S. In 2009, the rates of death ranged from 20.3 per 100,000 live births for Asians and Pacific Islanders to 119.2 per 100,000 live births for Native Americans and Alaska Natives. African American infants have a 24% greater risk (100.7 per 100,000 live births) of having a SIDS-related death, compared to the U.S. population as a whole,[86] and experience a 2.5[vague] greater incidence of SIDS than Caucasian infants.[87] Rates are calculated per 100,000 live births to enable more accurate comparison across groups of different total population size.

Research suggests that factors which contribute more directly to SIDS risk—maternal age, exposure to smoking, safe sleep practices, etc.—vary by racial and ethnic group and therefore risk exposure also varies by these groups.[3] Risk factors associated with prone sleeping patterns of African American families include mother's age, household poverty index, rural/urban status of residence, and infant's age. More than 50% of African American infants were placed in non-recommended sleeping positions, according to a 2012 study completed in South Carolina,[88] indicating that cultural factors can be protective as well as problematic.[89]

The rate of SIDS per 1000 births varies among ethnic groups in the United States:[28][90]

  • Central Americans and South Americans: 0.20
  • Asian/Pacific Islanders: 0.28
  • Mexicans: 0.24
  • Puerto Ricans: 0.53
  • Whites: 0.51
  • African Americans: 1.08
  • Native American: 1.24

Society and culture

[edit]

Many popular media portrayals of infants show them in non-recommended sleeping positions.[11]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d e f "How many infants die from SIDS or are at risk for SIDS?". National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. 19 November 2013. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
  2. ^ "Sudden Infant Death". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Archived from the original on 18 March 2013. Retrieved 13 March 2013.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Kinney HC, Thach BT (August 2009). "The sudden infant death syndrome". The New England Journal of Medicine. 361 (8): 795–805. doi:10.1056/NEJMra0803836. PMC 3268262. PMID 19692691.
  4. ^ Gilbert-Barness E, Spicer DE, Steffensen TS (2013). "Sudden Death Syndrome". Handbook of pediatric autopsy pathology (Second ed.). New York, NY: Springer New York. p. 654. ISBN 9781461467113. Archived from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 15 September 2017.
  5. ^ Sethuraman C, Coombs R, Cohen MC (2014). "Sudden Unexpected Death in Infancy". In Cohen MC, Scheimberg I (eds.). Pediatric & Perinatal Autopsy Manual. Cambridge. p. 319. ISBN 9781107646070.
  6. ^ Raven L (2018). "Sudden Infant Death Syndrome: History". In Duncan JR, Byard RW (eds.). SIDS Sudden Infant and Early Childhood Death: The Past, the Present and the Future. Adelaide (AU): University of Adelaide Press. ISBN 978-1-925261-67-7. PMID 30035955. Archived from the original on 27 July 2022. Retrieved 28 September 2020.
  7. ^ a b c d "What causes SIDS?". National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. 12 April 2013. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
  8. ^ "Ways To Reduce the Risk of SIDS and Other Sleep-Related Causes of Infant Death". NICHD. 20 January 2016. Archived from the original on 7 March 2016. Retrieved 2 March 2016.
  9. ^ a b c Hymel KP (July 2006). "Distinguishing sudden infant death syndrome from child abuse fatalities". Pediatrics. 118 (1): 421–427. doi:10.1542/peds.2006-1245. ISSN 1098-4275. PMID 16818592.
  10. ^ a b Milroy CM, Kepron C (June 2017). "Ten Percent of SIDS Cases are Murder - or are They?". Academic Forensic Pathology. 7 (2): 163–170. doi:10.23907/2017.018. PMC 6474533. PMID 31239971.
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Moon RY, Fu L (July 2012). "Sudden infant death syndrome: an update". Pediatrics in Review. 33 (7): 314–320. doi:10.1542/pir.33-7-314. PMID 22753789.
  12. ^ a b c "How can I reduce the risk of SIDS?". National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. 22 August 2014. Archived from the original on 27 February 2015. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
  13. ^ a b Duncan JR, Byard RW (2018). "Sudden Infant Death Syndrome: An Overview". In Duncan JR, Byard RW (eds.). SIDS Sudden Infant and Early Childhood Death: The Past, the Present and the Future. University of Adelaide Press. ISBN 9781925261677. PMID 30035964. Archived from the original on 2 July 2020. Retrieved 1 August 2019.
  14. ^ Wang H, Naghavi M, Allen C, Barber RM, Bhutta ZA, Carter A, et al. (October 2016). "Global, regional, and national life expectancy, all-cause mortality, and cause-specific mortality for 249 causes of death, 1980-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015". Lancet. 388 (10053): 1459–1544. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(16)31012-1. PMC 5388903. PMID 27733281.
  15. ^ Hoyert DL, Xu J (October 2012). "Deaths: preliminary data for 2011" (PDF). National Vital Statistics Reports. 61 (6): 1–51. PMID 24984457. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 February 2014.
  16. ^ "Sudden Infant Death Syndrome". National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. 27 June 2013. Archived from the original on 23 February 2015. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
  17. ^ "Sudden Unexpected Infant Death and Sudden Infant Death Syndrome: About SUID and SIDS". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Archived from the original on 20 April 2016. Retrieved 16 April 2016.
  18. ^ "Preventing sudden unexpected death in infancy". Ministry of Health. April 2008. Archived from the original on 12 December 2009.
  19. ^ "Sudden Unexpected Infant Death" (PDF). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 May 2016. Retrieved 16 April 2016.
  20. ^ Byard RW (2018). "Sudden Infant Death Syndrome: Definitions". In Duncan JR, Byard RW (eds.). SIDS Sudden Infant and Early Childhood Death: The Past, the Present and the Future. University of Adelaide Press. ISBN 9781925261677. PMID 30035958. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 1 August 2019.
  21. ^ Pickett KE, Luo Y, Lauderdale DS (November 2005). "Widening social inequalities in risk for sudden infant death syndrome". American Journal of Public Health. 95 (11): 1976–1981. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2004.059063. PMC 1449471. PMID 16254231.
  22. ^ a b c d Sullivan FM, Barlow SM (April 2001). "Review of risk factors for sudden infant death syndrome". Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology. 15 (2): 144–200. doi:10.1046/j.1365-3016.2001.00330.x. PMID 11383580.
  23. ^ Office of the Surgeon General of the United States Report on Involuntary Exposure to Tobacco Smoke Archived 2011-08-06 at the Wayback Machine(PDF Archived 2009-02-05 at the Wayback Machine)
  24. ^ Anderson TM, Lavista Ferres JM, Ren SY, Moon RY, Goldstein RD, Ramirez JM, Mitchell EA (April 2019). "Maternal Smoking Before and During Pregnancy and the Risk of Sudden Unexpected Infant Death". Pediatrics. 143 (4): e20183325. doi:10.1542/peds.2018-3325. PMC 6564075. PMID 30858347.
  25. ^ Bajanowski T, Brinkmann B, Mitchell EA, Vennemann MM, Leukel HW, Larsch KP, Beike J (January 2008). "Nicotine and cotinine in infants dying from sudden infant death syndrome". International Journal of Legal Medicine. 122 (1): 23–28. doi:10.1007/s00414-007-0155-9. PMID 17285322. S2CID 26325523.
  26. ^ Lavezzi AM, Corna MF, Matturri L (July 2010). "Ependymal alterations in sudden intrauterine unexplained death and sudden infant death syndrome: possible primary consequence of prenatal exposure to cigarette smoking". Neural Development. 5: 17. doi:10.1186/1749-8104-5-17. PMC 2919533. PMID 20642831.
  27. ^ Carlin RF, Moon RY (February 2017). "Risk Factors, Protective Factors, and Current Recommendations to Reduce Sudden Infant Death Syndrome: A Review". JAMA Pediatrics. 171 (2): 175–180. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2016.3345. PMID 27918760. S2CID 25569308.
  28. ^ a b Moon RY, Horne RS, Hauck FR (November 2007). "Sudden infant death syndrome". Lancet. 370 (9598): 1578–1587. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61662-6. PMID 17980736. S2CID 24624496. Archived from the original on 29 August 2021. Retrieved 14 February 2019.
  29. ^ Fleming PJ, Levine MR, Azaz Y, Wigfield R, Stewart AJ (June 1993). "Interactions between thermoregulation and the control of respiration in infants: possible relationship to sudden infant death". Acta Paediatrica. 82 (Suppl 389): 57–59. doi:10.1111/j.1651-2227.1993.tb12878.x. PMID 8374195. S2CID 44497216.
  30. ^ McIntosh CG, Tonkin SL, Gunn AJ (December 2009). "What is the mechanism of sudden infant deaths associated with co-sleeping?". The New Zealand Medical Journal. 122 (1307): 69–75. PMID 20148046.
  31. ^ Carpenter R, McGarvey C, Mitchell EA, Tappin DM, Vennemann MM, Smuk M, Carpenter JR (May 2013). "Bed sharing when parents do not smoke: is there a risk of SIDS? An individual level analysis of five major case-control studies". BMJ Open. 3 (5): e002299. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2012-002299. PMC 3657670. PMID 23793691. Open access icon
  32. ^ Moon RY (November 2011). "SIDS and other sleep-related infant deaths: expansion of recommendations for a safe infant sleeping environment". Pediatrics. 128 (5): 1030–1039. doi:10.1542/peds.2011-2284. PMID 22007004.
  33. ^ Young J, Shipstone R (2018). "Shared Sleeping Surfaces and Dangerous Sleeping Environments". In Duncan JR, Byard RW (eds.). SIDS Sudden Infant and Early Childhood Death: The Past, the Present and the Future. Adelaide (AU): University of Adelaide Press. ISBN 978-1-925261-67-7. PMID 30035939. Archived from the original on 4 November 2022. Retrieved 11 January 2021.
  34. ^ Hauck FR, Thompson JM, Tanabe KO, Moon RY, Vennemann MM (July 2011). "Breastfeeding and reduced risk of sudden infant death syndrome: a meta-analysis". Pediatrics. 128 (1): 103–110. doi:10.1542/peds.2010-3000. PMID 21669892.
  35. ^ Fleming PJ, Blair PS (February 2015). "Making informed choices on co-sleeping with your baby". BMJ. 350: h563. doi:10.1136/bmj.h563. PMID 25643704. S2CID 27309256.
  36. ^ a b c d "Cdc Wonder". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 24 February 2010. Archived from the original on 24 April 2010. Retrieved 17 April 2010.
  37. ^ Hunt CE (November 2007). "Small for gestational age infants and sudden infant death syndrome: a confluence of complex conditions". Archives of Disease in Childhood. Fetal and Neonatal Edition. 92 (6): F428–F429. doi:10.1136/adc.2006.112243. PMC 2675383. PMID 17951549.
  38. ^ Poets CF, Samuels MP, Wardrop CA, Picton-Jones E, Southall DP (April 1992). "Reduced haemoglobin levels in infants presenting with apparent life-threatening events--a retrospective investigation". Acta Paediatrica. 81 (4): 319–321. doi:10.1111/j.1651-2227.1992.tb12234.x. PMID 1606392. S2CID 33298390.
  39. ^ Giulian GG, Gilbert EF, Moss RL (April 1987). "Elevated fetal hemoglobin levels in sudden infant death syndrome". The New England Journal of Medicine. 316 (18): 1122–1126. doi:10.1056/NEJM198704303161804. PMID 2437454.
  40. ^ Mage DT (1996). "A probability model for the age distribution of SIDS". J Sudden Infant Death Syndrome Infant Mortal. 1: 13–31.
  41. ^ a b See CDC WONDER online database Archived 2010-04-24 at the Wayback Machine and "WHO Mortality Database". World Health Organization. Archived from the original on 27 June 2004. Retrieved 18 March 2006. for data on SIDS by gender in the US and throughout the world.
  42. ^ a b Mage DT, Donner EM (September 2004). "The fifty percent male excess of infant respiratory mortality". Acta Paediatrica. 93 (9): 1210–1215. doi:10.1080/08035250410031305. PMID 15384886.
  43. ^ Behere SP, Weindling SN (2014). "Inherited arrhythmias: The cardiac channelopathies". Annals of Pediatric Cardiology. 8 (3): 210–220. doi:10.4103/0974-2069.164695. PMC 4608198. PMID 26556967.
  44. ^ de Vinuesa CG (4 March 2021). "Kathleen Folbigg's children likely died of natural causes, not murder. Here's the evidence my team found". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 4 March 2021. Retrieved 16 December 2021.
  45. ^ Rose T (5 June 2023). "Kathleen Folbigg pardoned and released after 20 years in jail over deaths of her four children". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 5 June 2023.
  46. ^ Van Nguyen JM, Abenhaim HA (October 2013). "Sudden infant death syndrome: review for the obstetric care provider". American Journal of Perinatology. 30 (9): 703–714. doi:10.1055/s-0032-1331035. PMID 23292938. S2CID 25034518.
  47. ^ Phillips DP, Brewer KM, Wadensweiler P (March 2011). "Alcohol as a risk factor for sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)". Addiction. 106 (3): 516–525. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03199.x. PMID 21059188. Archived from the original on 6 September 2017. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
  48. ^ O'Leary CM, Jacoby PJ, Bartu A, D'Antoine H, Bower C (March 2013). "Maternal alcohol use and sudden infant death syndrome and infant mortality excluding SIDS". Pediatrics. 131 (3): e770–e778. doi:10.1542/peds.2012-1907. PMID 23439895. S2CID 2523083.
  49. ^ Harrington CT, Hafid NA, Waters KA (June 2022). "Butyrylcholinesterase is a potential biomarker for Sudden Infant Death Syndrome". eBioMedicine. 80: 104041. doi:10.1016/j.ebiom.2022.104041. PMC 9092508. PMID 35533499. S2CID 248645079.
  50. ^ "Researchers Pinpoint Reason Infants Die From SIDS". BioSpace. Archived from the original on 10 May 2022. Retrieved 12 May 2022.
  51. ^ "Groundbreaking New Study Finds Possible Explanation for SIDS". Goods News Network. Goods News Network. 17 May 2022. Archived from the original on 22 May 2022. Retrieved 20 May 2022.
  52. ^ "NIH alerts caregivers to increase in SIDS risk during cold weather". National Institutes of Health (NIH). 3 September 2015. Archived from the original on 10 April 2019. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
  53. ^ Horne RS (May 2006). "Effects of prematurity on heart rate control: implications for sudden infant death syndrome". Expert Review of Cardiovascular Therapy. 4 (3): 335–343. doi:10.1586/14779072.4.3.335. PMID 16716094. S2CID 26689292.
  54. ^ See FSID Press release.
  55. ^ Weber MA, Klein NJ, Hartley JC, Lock PE, Malone M, Sebire NJ (May 2008). "Infection and sudden unexpected death in infancy: a systematic retrospective case review". Lancet. 371 (9627): 1848–1853. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60798-9. PMID 18514728. S2CID 8017934.
  56. ^ Yang Z, Lantz PE, Ibdah JA (December 2007). "Post-mortem analysis for two prevalent beta-oxidation mutations in sudden infant death". Pediatrics International. 49 (6): 883–887. doi:10.1111/j.1442-200X.2007.02478.x. PMID 18045290. S2CID 25455710.
  57. ^ Nevas M, Lindström M, Virtanen A, Hielm S, Kuusi M, Arnon SS, et al. (January 2005). "Infant botulism acquired from household dust presenting as sudden infant death syndrome". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 43 (1): 511–513. doi:10.1128/JCM.43.1.511-513.2005. PMC 540168. PMID 15635031.
  58. ^ Millat G, Kugener B, Chevalier P, Chahine M, Huang H, Malicier D, et al. (May 2009). "Contribution of long-QT syndrome genetic variants in sudden infant death syndrome". Pediatric Cardiology. 30 (4): 502–509. doi:10.1007/s00246-009-9417-2. PMID 19322600. S2CID 7473579.
  59. ^ Stray-Pedersen A, Vege A, Rognum TO (October 2008). "Helicobacter pylori antigen in stool is associated with SIDS and sudden infant deaths due to infectious disease". Pediatric Research. 64 (4): 405–410. doi:10.1203/PDR.0b013e31818095f7. PMID 18535491.
  60. ^ Bajanowski T, Vennemann M, Bohnert M, Rauch E, Brinkmann B, Mitchell EA (July 2005). "Unnatural causes of sudden unexpected deaths initially thought to be sudden infant death syndrome". International Journal of Legal Medicine. 119 (4): 213–216. doi:10.1007/s00414-005-0538-8. PMID 15830244. S2CID 34327548.
  61. ^ Du Chesne A, Bajanowski T, Brinkmann B (1997). "[Homicides without clues in children]". Archiv für Kriminologie (in German). 199 (1–2): 21–26. PMID 9157833.
  62. ^ Williams FL, Lang GA, Mage DT (April 2001). "Sudden unexpected infant deaths in Dundee, 1882-1891: overlying or SIDS?". Scottish Medical Journal. 46 (2): 43–47. doi:10.1177/003693300104600206. PMID 11394337. S2CID 29612195.
  63. ^ "Cradle of Secrets". CharlotteObserver.com. Archived from the original on 11 August 2011. Retrieved 20 July 2011.
  64. ^ Glatt J (2000). Cradle of Death: A Shocking True Story of a Mother, Multiple Murder, and SIDS. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-97302-5.
  65. ^ Havill A (2002). While Innocents Slept: A Story of Revenge, Murder, and SIDS. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-97517-3.
  66. ^ =1225 "About Statistics and the Law" Archived 2 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine (Website). Royal Statistical Society. (2001-10-23) Retrieved on 2007-09-22
  67. ^ "Reduce the Risk of SIDS & Suffocation - AAP general recommendations". Healthy Children. 2017. Archived from the original on 13 December 2009.
  68. ^ Pease AS, Fleming PJ, Hauck FR, Moon RY, Horne RS, L'Hoir MP, et al. (June 2016). "Swaddling and the Risk of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome: A Meta-analysis". Pediatrics. 137 (6): e20153275. doi:10.1542/peds.2015-3275. PMID 27244847. Limited evidence suggested swaddling risk increased with infant age and was associated with a twofold risk for infants aged >6 months.
  69. ^ Bonafide CP, Jamison DT, Foglia EE (January 2017). "The Emerging Market of Smartphone-Integrated Infant Physiologic Monitors". JAMA. 317 (4): 353–354. doi:10.1001/jama.2016.19137. PMC 5310844. PMID 28118463.
  70. ^ Mitchell EA (November 2009). "SIDS: past, present and future". Acta Paediatrica. 98 (11): 1712–1719. doi:10.1111/j.1651-2227.2009.01503.x. PMID 19807704. S2CID 1566087.
  71. ^ Mitchell EA, Hutchison L, Stewart AW (July 2007). "The continuing decline in SIDS mortality". Archives of Disease in Childhood. 92 (7): 625–626. doi:10.1136/adc.2007.116194. PMC 2083749. PMID 17405855.
  72. ^ Jaafar SH, Ho JJ, Jahanfar S, Angolkar M (August 2016). "Effect of restricted pacifier use in breastfeeding term infants for increasing duration of breastfeeding". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2016 (8): CD007202. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007202.pub4. PMC 8520760. PMID 27572944.
  73. ^ "What Can Be Done?". American SIDS Institute. Archived from the original on 21 June 2003.
  74. ^ Moon RY, Darnall RA, Feldman-Winter L, Goodstein MH, Hauck FR, et al. (Task Force on Sudden Infant Death Syndrome) (November 2016). "SIDS and Other Sleep-Related Infant Deaths: Updated 2016 Recommendations for a Safe Infant Sleeping Environment". Pediatrics. 138 (5): e20162938. doi:10.1542/peds.2016-2938. PMID 27940804. Archived from the original on 25 October 2016.
  75. ^ "The Changing Concept of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome: Diagnostic Coding Shifts, Controversies Regarding the Sleeping Environment, and New Variables to Consider in Reducing Risk". American Academy of Pediatrics. Archived from the original on 3 December 2008. Retrieved 6 November 2008.
  76. ^ Müller-Nordhorn J, Hettler-Chen CM, Keil T, Muckelbauer R (January 2015). "Association between sudden infant death syndrome and diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis immunisation: an ecological study". BMC Pediatrics. 15 (1): 1. doi:10.1186/s12887-015-0318-7. PMC 4326294. PMID 25626628.
  77. ^ Mitchell EA, Stewart AW, Clements M (December 1995). "Immunisation and the sudden infant death syndrome. New Zealand Cot Death Study Group". Archives of Disease in Childhood. 73 (6): 498–501. doi:10.1136/adc.73.6.498. PMC 1511439. PMID 8546503.
  78. ^ Fleming PJ, Blair PS, Platt MW, Tripp J, Smith IJ, Golding J (April 2001). "The UK accelerated immunisation programme and sudden unexpected death in infancy: case-control study". BMJ. 322 (7290): 822. doi:10.1136/bmj.322.7290.822. PMC 30557. PMID 11290634.
  79. ^ a b Vennemann MM, Höffgen M, Bajanowski T, Hense HW, Mitchell EA (June 2007). "Do immunisations reduce the risk for SIDS? A meta-analysis". Vaccine. 25 (26): 4875–4879. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2007.02.077. PMID 17400342.
  80. ^ Hoffman HJ, Hunter JC, Damus K, Pakter J, Peterson DR, van Belle G, Hasselmeyer EG (April 1987). "Diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis immunization and sudden infant death: results of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Cooperative Epidemiological Study of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome risk factors". Pediatrics. 79 (4): 598–611. doi:10.1542/peds.79.4.598. PMID 3493477. S2CID 37163477.
  81. ^ Carvajal A, Caro-Patón T, Martín de Diego I, Martín Arias LH, Alvarez Requejo A, Lobato A (May 1996). "[DTP vaccine and infant sudden death syndrome. Meta-analysis]". Medicina Clinica. 106 (17): 649–652. PMID 8691909.
  82. ^ "Vaccine Safety: Common Concerns: Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 28 August 2015. Archived from the original on 17 April 2016. Retrieved 15 April 2016.
  83. ^ Lozano R, Naghavi M, Foreman K, Lim S, Shibuya K, Aboyans V, et al. (December 2012). "Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010". Lancet. 380 (9859): 2095–2128. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61728-0. hdl:10536/DRO/DU:30050819. PMC 10790329. PMID 23245604. S2CID 1541253. Archived from the original on 19 May 2020. Retrieved 18 September 2020.
  84. ^ Sharma BR (March 2007). "Sudden infant death syndrome: a subject of medicolegal research". The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology. 28 (1): 69–72. doi:10.1097/01.paf.0000220934.18700.ef. PMID 17325469. S2CID 37925269. Archived from the original on 29 August 2021. Retrieved 14 February 2019.
  85. ^ a b c Bowman L, Hargrove T. "Saving babies: Exposing Sudden Infant Death In America". DailyCamera.com. Archived from the original on 26 February 2009. Retrieved 30 September 2008.
  86. ^ Powers DA, Song S (2009). "Absolute change in cause-specific infant mortality for blacks and whites in the US: 1983–2002". Tion Research and Policy Review. 28 (6): 817–851. doi:10.1007/s11113-009-9130-0. S2CID 72279012.
  87. ^ Pollack HA, Frohna JG (May 2001). "A competing risk model of sudden infant death syndrome incidence in two US birth cohorts". The Journal of Pediatrics. 138 (5): 661–667. doi:10.1067/mpd.2001.112248. PMID 11343040.
  88. ^ Smith MG, Liu JH, Helms KH, Wilkerson KL (January 2012). "Racial differences in trends and predictors of infant sleep positioning in South Carolina, 1996-2007". Maternal and Child Health Journal. 16 (1): 72–82. doi:10.1007/s10995-010-0718-0. PMID 21165764. S2CID 2668964.
  89. ^ Brathwaite-Fisher T, Bronheim A (2001). Cultural Competence and Sudden Infant Death Syndrome and Other Infant Death: A Review of the Literature from 1990–2000. National Center for Cultural Competence, Georgetown University Center for Child and Human Development. Archived from the original (DOC) on 2010-06-12. Retrieved 2013-09-29.
  90. ^ Burnett LB (20 October 2019). "Sudden Infant Death Syndrome". Medscape. Archived from the original on 1 August 2016.

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sudden infant death syndrome.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SIDS&oldid=1263268492"