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First-wave feminism refers to a period of feminist activity during the 19th and early twentieth century throughout the world, particularly in the United Kingdom, Canada, the Netherlands and the United States. It focused on de jure (officially mandated) inequalities, primarily on gaining women's suffrage (the right to vote).

The term first-wave was coined retroactively in the 1970s. The women's movement then, focusing as much on fighting de facto (unofficial) inequalities as de jure ones, acknowledged its predecessors by calling itself second-wave feminism.

Origins

According to Miriam Schneir, Simone de Beauvoir wrote that the first woman to "take up her pen in defense of her sex" was Christine de Pizan in the 15th century.^[1] Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa and Modesta di Pozzo di Forzi worked in the 16th century.^[1] Marie Le Jars de Gournay, Anne Bradstreet and François Poullain de la Barre wrote in the 17th.^[1]

Mary Wollstonecraft published one of the first feminist treatises, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), in which she advocated the social and moral equality of the sexes, extending the work of her 1790 pamphlet, A Vindication of the Rights of Men. Her later unfinished novel, Maria, or the Wrongs of Woman, earned her considerable criticism as she discussed women's sexual desires. She died young, and her widower, the philosopher William Godwin, quickly wrote a memoir of her that, contrary to his intentions, destroyed her reputation for generations.

Wollstonecraft is regarded as the grandmother of British feminism and her ideas shaped the thinking of the suffragettes, who campaigned for the women's vote. After generations of work, this was eventually granted − to some women in 1918, and equally with men in 1928.

A 1932 Soviet poster for International Women's Day.

United Kingdom

In 1918 Marie Stopes, who believed in equality in marriage and the importance of women's sexual desire, published Married Love,^[2] a sex manual that, according to a survey of American academics in 1935, was one of the 25 most influential books of the previous 50 years, ahead of Relativity by Albert Einstein and The Interpretation of Dreams by Sigmund Freud.^[3] The right to vote was granted to some UK women in 1918, and equally with men in 1928.

Early 20th century

During the early 20th century, English women achieved civil equality, in theory. World War I saw more women go to work outside the home. In the beginning of the 20th century, women were limited to factory labor and domestic work. Women gained the right to sit in parliament, although it was only slowly that women were actually elected. Women started serving on school boards and local bodies, and numbers kept increasing after the war. This period also saw more women starting to become more educated. In 1910, "women were attending many leading medical schools, and in 1915 the American Medical Association began to admit women members."^[4] Bills such as the Women's Emancipation Bill passed which aided the women's movement. Representation of the People Act 1918 had given women the right to vote if they were property holders and older than 29. In 1928, this was extended to all women over 21.^[5] The Sex Disqualification (removal) Act 1919 opened professions and the Civil Service to women, and marriage was no longer seen to legally stop women from working outside the home. A Matrimonial Causes Act in 1923 gave women the right to the same grounds for divorce as men. However, the recession which started in the 1920s meant unemployment rose, which women were the first to face. Many women served in the armed forces during the war. In World War II, around 300,000 American women served in the Navy and Army performing jobs such as secretaries, typists and nurses. Many feminist writers and women's rights activists argued that it was not equality to men which they needed but a recognition of what women need to fulfil their potential of their own natures, not only within the aspect of work but society and home life too. Virginia Woolf produced her essay A Room of One's Own based on the ideas of women as writers and characters in fiction. Woolf said that a woman must have money and a room of her own to be able to write. "New Zealand was the first country to grant women the right to vote at a national level, while Finland, as well as some American states gave women voting rights at a state level before Australian women obtained that right across the nation."^[6]

United States

Woman in the Nineteenth Century by Margaret Fuller has been considered the first major feminist work in the United States and is often compared to Wollstonecraft's A Vindication of the Rights of Woman.^[7] Prominent leaders of the feminist movement in the United States include Lucretia Coffin Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucy Stone, and Susan B. Anthony; Anthony and other activists such as Victoria Woodhull and Matilda Joslyn Gage made attempts to cast votes prior to their legal entitlement to do so, for which many of them faced charges. Other important leaders included several women who dissented against the law in order to have their voices heard,(Sarah and Angelina Grimké), in addition to other activists such as Carrie Chapman Catt, Alice Paul, Sojourner Truth, Ida B. Wells, Margaret Sanger and Lucy Burns.^[8]

First-wave feminism involved a wide range of women, some belonging to conservative Christian groups (such as Frances Willard and the Woman's Christian Temperance Union), others such as Matilda Joslyn Gage of the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) resembling the radicalism of much of second-wave feminism. The majority of first-wave feminists were more moderate and conservative than radical or revolutionary—like the members of the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA) they were willing to work within the political system and they understood the clout of joining with sympathetic men in power to promote the cause of suffrage. The limited membership of the NWSA was narrowly focused on gaining a federal amendment for women's suffrage, whereas the AWSA, with ten times as many members, worked to gain suffrage on a state-by-state level as a necessary precursor to federal suffrage. The NWSA had broad goals, hoping to achieve a more equal social role for women, but the AWSA was aware of the divisive nature of many of those goals and instead chose to focus solely on suffrage. The NWSA was known for having more publicly aggressive tactics (such as picketing and hunger strikes) whereas the AWSA used more traditional strategies like lobbying, delivering speeches, applying political pressure and gathering signatures for petitions.^[9]

The first wave of feminists, in contrast to the second wave, focused very little on the subjects of abortion, birth control, and overall reproductive rights of women. Though she never married, Anthony published her views about marriage, holding that a woman should be allowed to refuse sex with her husband; the American woman had no legal recourse at that time against rape by her husband.

In 1860, New York passed a revised Married Women's Property Act which gave women shared ownership of their children, allowing them to have a say in their children's wills, wages, and granting them the right to inherit property.^[10] Further advances and setbacks were experienced in New York and other states, but with each new win the feminists were able to use it as an example to apply more leverage on unyielding legislative bodies. The end of the first wave is often linked with the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution (1920), granting women the right to vote. This was the major victory of the movement, which also included reforms in higher education, in the workplace and professions, and in health care.

Different accounts of the involvement of African American women in the Women's Suffrage Movement are given. In a 1974 interview, Alice Paul notes that a compromise was made between southern groups to have white women march first, then men, then African American women^[11]. In another account by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), difficulties in segregating women resulted in African American women marching with their respective States without hindrance ^[12]. Among them, Ida B. Wells-Barnett who marched with the Illinois delegation.

Persia

While in some distance in culture and language, the events of the Conference of Badasht presented progress on the concerns of first wave feminism. There is a synchronicity in time and a likeness in theme and events between Persia (later named Iran) and the United States between the conference at Badasht and the Seneca Falls Convention.^[13]^[14] First the conference happened over three weeks from late June to mid-July 1848 and the Seneca Falls Convention happened in mid-July 1848. Both conferences had women (Tahirih and Elizabeth Cady Stanton) take strong stances on the role of women in the public arena that some attending reacted to harshly. And lastly leading men present (Quddús and Frederick Douglass) supported these calls during the meetings healing the breach. Some even see a parallel in the background discussions that are partially documented to arrange how things would be brought up and settled.

The conference of Badasht is considered by Bahá'ís as a signal moment that demonstrated that Islamic Sharia law had been abrogated^[15]^[16] as well as a key demonstration of the thrust of raising the social position of women.^[17]Although the unveiling led to accusations of immorality^[18]^[19] the Báb responded by supporting her position and naming her the Pure (Táhirih).^[20] Modern women scholars review this kind of accusation as part of a pattern faced by women leaders and writers then and since^[21] in a way that Azar Nafisi says "…the Islamic regime today… fears them and feels vulnerable in the face of a resistance that is not just political but existential."^[22]

Australia

The first wave of Australian feminism, which dates back to the late nineteen century, was chiefly concerned with suffrage (women's right to vote) and consequently with women's access to parliaments and other political activities.^[23]

Rose Scott is an excellent example. In 1882, Scott began to hold a weekly salon in her Sydney home left to her by her late mother. Through these meetings, she became well known amongst politicians, judges, philanthropists, writers and poets. In 1889, she helped to found the Women's Literary Society, which later grew into the Womanhood Suffrage League in 1891. Being left her mother's home, Rose hosted a salon there, leading politicians such as Bernhard Ringrose Wise, William Holman, W. M. Hughes and Thomas Bavin met and discussed the drafting of the bill that eventually became the Early Closing Act of 1899.^[24]

Timeline of first-wave feminism worldwide

1809

USA, Connecticut: Married women are allowed to execute wills^[25]

1810

Sweden: The informal right of an unmarried woman to be declared of legal majority by royal dispensation are officially confirmed by parliament^[26]

1811

Austria: Married women are granted separate economy and the right to choose profession^[27]
Sweden: Married businesswomen are granted the right to make decisions about their own affairs without their husband's consent ^[28]

1821

USA, Maine: Married women allowed to own and manage property in their own name during the incapacity of their spouse^[29]

1827

Brazil: The first elementary schools for girls and the profession of school teacher are open^[30]

1829

India: Sati is banned.
Sweden: Midwifes are allowed to use surgical instruments, which are unique in Europe at the time and gives them surgical status^[31]

1833

USA, Ohio: The first co-educational university, Oberlin College.
Guatemala: Divorce legalized (rescinded in 1840 and reintroduced in 1894) ^[32]

1835

USA, Arkansas: Married women allowed to own (but not control) property in their own name^[29]
USA, Massachusetts: Married women allowed to own and manage property in their own name during the incapacity of their spouse^[29]
USA, Tennessee: Married women allowed to own and manage property in their own name during the incapacity of their spouse^[29]

1839

Great Britain: The Custody of Infants Act 1839 makes it possible for divorced mothers to be granted custody of their children.
USA, Mississippi: The Married Women's Property Act 1839 grants married women the right to own (but not control) property in her own name.^[33]

1840

USA, Texas: Married women allowed to own property in their own name^[34]
USA, Maine: Married women allowed to own (but not control) property in their own name^[29]

1841

Bulgaria: The first secular girls school makes education and the profession of teacher available for women^[35]
USA, Maryland: Married women allowed to own (but not control) property in their own name.^[29]

1842

Sweden: Compulsory Elementary school for both sexes ^[36]
USA, New Hampshire: Married women allowed to own and manage property in their own name during the incapacity of their spouse^[29]

1843

USA, Kentucky: Married women allowed to own and manage property in their own name during the incapacity of their spouse^[29]

1844

USA, Maine: Married women granted separate economy^[29]
USA, Maine: Married women granted trade license^[29]
USA, Massachusetts: Married Women granted separate economy ^[37]

1845

Sweden: Equal inheritance for sons and daughters (in the absence of a will)^[38]
USA, New York: Married women granted patent rights^[29]
USA, Florida: Married women allowed to own (but not control) property in their own name^[29]

1846

Sweden: Trade- and crafts works professions are opened to all unmarried women^[39]
USA, Alabama: Married women allowed to own (but not control) property in their own name^[29]
USA, Kentucky: Married women allowed to own (but not control) property in their own name^[29]
USA, Ohio: Married women allowed to own (but not control) property in their own name^[29]
USA, Michigan: Married women allowed to own and manage property in their own name during the incapacity of their spouse^[29]

1847

Belgium: Elementary school for both genders
Costa Rica: The first high school for girls, and the profession of teacher is open to women^[40]

1848

USA, State of New York: A women's rights conference called the Seneca Falls Convention was held.
USA, State of New York: Married Women's Property Act grant married women separate economy. ^[41]
USA, Pennsylvania: Married women granted separate economy.^[29]
USA, Rhode Island: Married women granted separate economy. ^[29]
Persia (now called Iran): A women's rights conference called the Conference of Badasht was held.

1849

USA, Alabama: Married women allowed to own and manage property in their own name during the incapacity of their spouse^[29]
USA, Connecticut: Married women allowed to own and manage property in their own name during the incapacity of their spouse^[29]
USA: Elizabeth Blackwell becomes the first female medical doctor (1858 also in Great Britain).
USA, Missouri: Married women allowed to own (but not control) property in their own name^[29]
USA, South Carolina: Married women allowed to own (but not control) property in their own name^[29]

1850

Britain: The first organized movement for British women's suffrage was the Langham Place Circle of the 1850s, led by Barbara Bodichon (née Leigh-Smith) and Bessie Rayner Parkes. They also campaigned for improved female rights in the law, employment, education, and marriage.
France: Elementary education for both sexes, but girls are only allowed to be tutored by teachers from the church^[27]
Haiti: The first permanent school for girls. ^[42]
Iceland: Equal inheritance. ^[43]
USA, California: Married Women's Property Act grant married women separate economy. ^[44]
USA, Wisconsin: Married Women's Property Act grant married women separate economy^[45]
USA, Oregon: Unmarried women are allowed to own land^[27]

1851

Guatemala: Full citizenship are granted economically independent women (rescinded in 1879)^[46]
Canada, New Brunswick : Married women granted separate economy^[47]

1852

USA, New Jersey: Married Women granted separate economy ^[37]
USA, Indiana: Married women allowed to own (but not control) property in their own name^[29]
USA, Wisconsin: Married women allowed to own and manage property in their own name during the incapacity of their spouse^[29]

1853

Colombia: Divorce is legalized (rescinded in 1856 and reintroduced in 1992) ^[48]
Sweden: The profession of teacher at public primary and elementary schools are opened to both sexes^[49]

1854

Norway: Equal inheritance^[27]
USA, Massachusetts: grant married women separate economy^[50]
Chile: The first public elementary school for girls^[51]

1855

USA, Iowa: University of Iowa becomes the first coeducational public or state university in the United States^[52]
USA, Michigan: Married women granted separate economy^[53]

1856

USA, Connecticut: Married women granted patent rights^[29]

1857

Denmark: Legal majority for unmarried women^[27]
Denmark: Trade- and crafts professions are opened to unmarried women^[54]
Great Britain: Matrimonial Causes Act 1857 makes divorce possible for both sexes.
Netherlands: Elementary education compulsory for both girls and boys ^[55]
Spain: Elementary education compulsory for both girls and boys ^[56]
USA, Maine: Married women granted the right to control their own earnings ^[37]
USA, Oregon: Married women allowed to own (but not control) property in their own name^[29]
USA, Oregon: Married women allowed to own and manage property in their own name during the incapacity of their spouse^[29]

1858

Russia: gymnasiums for girls^[57]
Sweden: Legal majority for unmarried women (if applied for; automatic legal majority in 1863)^[38]

1859

Canada West: Married women granted separate economy ^[58]
Denmark: The post of teacher at public schools are opened to women^[54]
Russia: Women allowed to audit university lectures (retracted in 1863)^[59]
Sweden: The post of college teacher and lower official at public institutions are open to women ^[60]
USA, Kansas: Married Women's Property Act grant married women separate economy ^[61]

1915

USA: In 1915 the American Medical Association began to admit women members.^[62]

1900

Belgium: Legal majority for unmarried women^[63]
Egypt: A school for female teachers is founded in Cairo ^[64]
France: Women allowed to practice law^[65]
Korea: The post office profession is open to women and thereby open the public work market for women ^[66]
Tunisia: The first public elementary school for girls^[64]
Japan: The first Women's University ^[67]
Baden, Germany: Universities open to women^[68]
Sweden: Maternity leave for female industrial workers^[39]

1901

Bulgaria: Universities open to women^[69]
Cuba: Universities open to women ^[70]
Denmark: Maternity leave for all women^[71]
Sweden: Women are given four weeks maternity leave.^[72]

1902

China: Foot binding is abolished.
El Salvador: Married women granted separate economy ^[73]
El Salvador: Legal majority for married women ^[74]

1903

Bavaria, Germany: Universities open to women^[75]
Sweden: Public medical offices open to women^[76]

1904

Mexico: Divorce is legalized.
Nicaragua: Married women granted separate economy ^[77]
Nicaragua: Legal majority for married women ^[78]
Württemberg, Germany: Universities open to women^[79]

1905

Iceland: Educational institutions open to women^[27]
Russia: Universities open to women^[27]

1906

Finland (to stand for election).
Honduras: Married women granted separate economy ^[80]
Honduras: Legal majority for married women ^[81]
Honduras: Divorce is legalized ^[82]
Korea: The profession of nurse is allowed for women^[83]
Nicaragua: Divorce is legalized ^[84]
Sweden : Municipal suffrage, since 1862 granted to unmarried women, granted to married women ^[85]
Saxony, Germany: Universities open to women^[86]

1907

France: Married women given control of their income ^[87]
France: Women allowed guardianship of children^[88]
Great Britain: Matrimonial Causes Act 1907
Japan: Tohoku University, the first (private) coeducational university.
Norway (to stand for election).
Finland (first female Members of Parliament).
Uruguay: Divorce is legalized ^[89]

1908

Belgium: Women may act as legal witnesses in court^[27]
Denmark: Juridical professions of lower rank open to women^[54]
Denmark: Unmarried women are made legal guardian of their children^[71]
Peru: Universities open to women^[90]
Prussia, Alsace-Lorraine and Hesse, Germany: Universities open to women^[91]

1909

Sweden: Women granted eligibility to municipal councils ^[85]
Sweden: The phrase "Swedish man" are removed from the application forms to public offices and women are thereby approved as applicants to most public professions^[92]
Mecklenburg, Germany: Universities open to women^[93]

1910

Ecuador: Divorce is legalized ^[94]
Korea: College courses for women (at Ewha Womans University).

1911

Portugal: Civil offices open to women^[95]
Portugal: Legal majority for married women ^[95] (rescinded in 1933)^[96]
Portugal: Divorce legalized^[96]

1913

Japan: Public universities open to women^[97]
Portugal: The first university law degree is granted to a woman^[95]

1914

Russia: Married women allowed their own internal passport^[98]

1917

Cuba: Married women granted separate economy ^[99]
Cuba: Legal majority for married women ^[100]
Netherlands (to stand for election)
Mexico: Legal majority for married women^[101]
Mexico: Divorce legalized^[102]

1918

Cuba: Divorce is legalized ^[103]
Nicaragua: The first female obtains a university degree^[104]
Soviet Russia: The first Soviet Constitution explicitly declares the equal rights of men and women.
Thailand: Universities open to women ^[105]
England: In 1918 Marie Stopes, who believed in equality in marriage and the importance of women's sexual desire, published Married Love,^[106] a sex manual that, according to a survey of American academics in 1935, was one of the 25 most influential books of the previous 50 years, ahead of Relativity by Albert Einstein and The Interpretation of Dreams by Sigmund Freud.^[107]

1919

Italy: Married women granted separate economy^[108]
Italy: Public offices on lower levels are opened to women^[108]
Great Britain: The Sex Disqualification (Removal) Act 1919.

1920

China: The first female students are accepted in the Peking University, soon followed by universities all over China.^[109]
Canada: Women granted the right to stand for election, with some restrictions/conditions.
Haiti: The apothecary profession opened to women.^[42]
Korea: The profession of telephone operator, as well as several other professions, such as store clerks, are open to women^[110]
Portugal: Secondary school open to women^[95]
Sweden: Legal majority for married women and equal marriage rights^[38]
USA: The 19th Amendment is signed into law, granting all American women the right to vote.

References

Notes

^ ^a ^b ^c Schneir, Miram, 1972 (1994). Feminism: The Essential Historical Writings. Vintage Books. p. xiv. ISBN 0-679-75381-8. {{cite book}}: |first= has numeric name (help)
^ Stopes, Marie Carmichael and McKibbin, Ross (ed.), 1918 (2004). Married love. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280432-4. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help); |first= has numeric name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Short, R.V. (August 23, 2005). "New ways of preventing HIV infection: thinking simply, simply thinking". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 361 (1469). The Royal Society via PubMed (U.S. National Institutes of Health): 811–20. doi:10.1098/rstb.2005.1781. PMC 1609406. PMID 16627296.
^ "Women's History in America", Excerpted from Compton's Interactive Encyclopedia, 1995
^ Phillips, Melanie (2004). The Ascent of Woman: A History of the Suffragette Movement and the Ideas Behind It. London: Abacus. ISBN 978-0-349-11660-0.
^ "Women, Power and The Public Sphere" by Anita Seibert & Dorota Roslaniec
^ Slater, Abby. In Search of Margaret Fuller. New York: Delacorte Press, 1978: 89–90. ISBN 0-440-03944-4
^ Dicker, 2008. pp. 28, 47–48.
^ Dicker, 2008, pp. 40–43.
^ Dicker, 2008, pp. 30, 38.
^ The Library of Congress,2001.
^ The Library of Congress, 2001.
^ Miller, Bradford W. (1998). "Seneca Falls First Woman's Rights Convention of 1848; The Sacred Rites of the Nation" (PDF). Journal of Bahá’í Studies. 8 (3). Association for Bahá’í Studies. Retrieved 4–4–2012. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
^ Penn, Michael L. (2003). Overcoming violence against women and girls: the international campaign to eradicate a worldwide problem (illustrated ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-0-7425-2500-9. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
^ Momen, Moojan; Lawson, B. Todd (2004). "Tahirih". In Jestice, Phyllis G. (ed.). Holy People of the World: A Cross-cultural Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-57607-355-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
^ Maneck, Susan (1994). "Religion and Women". Albany: SUNY Press.
^ Momen, Moojan (May, 1983). "The Social Basis of the Babi Upheavals in Iran (1848-53): A Preliminary Analysis". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 15 (2). Cambridge University Press: 157–183. JSTOR 162988. Retrieved 4-4-2012. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
^
- Rev. Wilson, Samuel G. (1914). "Bahaism and the Woman Question - II". In Wilder, Royal Gould; Pierson, Delavan Leonard; Pierson, Arthur Tappan; Sherwood, James Manning (eds.). The Missionary review of the world. Vol. 37. Funk & Wagnalls. pp. 915–919. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
- Rev. Wilson, Samuel G. (1915). "The Bayan of the Bab". In Armstrong, William Park (ed.). The Princeton Theological Review. Vol. 13. MacCalla & Company Inc. pp. 633–654. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
- Rev. Wilson, Samuel G. (1915). Bahaism and Its Claims: A Study of the Religion Promulgated by Baha Ullah and Abdul Baha. Fleming H. Revell co. pp. 171–172.
^ Milani, Farzaneh (1992). Veils and words: the emerging voices of Iranian women writers. Contemporary issues in the Middle East (illustrated ed.). I.B.Tauris. pp. 295, esp. 3, 8, 27, 49, 53, 61, 63, 77–82, 90. ISBN 978-1-85043-574-7.
^ Smith, Peter (2000). "Táhirih". A concise encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. pp. 332–333. ISBN 1-85168-184-1.
^
- Milani, Farzaneh (1992). Veils and words: the emerging voices of Iranian women writers. Contemporary issues in the Middle East (illustrated ed.). I.B.Tauris. pp. 295, esp. 3, 8, 27, 49, 53, 61, 63, 77–82, 90. ISBN 978-1-85043-574-7.
- Nafisi, Azar (February, 1999). "The Veiled Threat". New Republic. 220 (8): 24–29. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help) (at the time Azar Nafisi was a visiting professor at the Johns Hopkins University School of Advanced International Studies.)
- Mfon, Victoria (20–12–2006). "Azar Nafisi: Voices from the Gaps". Artist Pages. University of Minnesota. Retrieved 4–2–2012. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
- Zahedi, Ashraf (Fall, 2007). "Contested Meaning of the Veil and Political Ideologies of Iranian Regimes". Journal of Middle East Women's Studies. 3 (3): 75–98. Retrieved 4–2–2012. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
- Shahidian, Hammed (Summer, 1995). "International trends: Islam, politics, and problems of writing women's history in Iran". Journal of Women's History. 7 (2). {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
^ Nafisi, Azar (November 27, 2010). "Iran's women: canaries in the coalmine; The battle for emancipation is part of a proud tradition that will shape the future of the regime and Islam itself" (PDF). The Times of London. p. 21. Retrieved 4–2–2012. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
^ "Women, Power and The Public Sphere" by Anita Seibert & Dorota Roslaniec
^ Early Closing Act 1899 No 38
^ Cite error: The named reference womenshistory.about.com was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ Christine Bladh (Swedish): Månglerskor: att sälja från korg och bod i Stockholm 1819–1846 (1991)
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Richard J Evans (1979). Kvinnorörelsens historia i Europa, USA, Australien och Nya Zeeland 1840–1920 (The Feminists: Women's Emancipation Movements in Europe, America and Australasia, 1840–1920) Helsingborg: LiberFörlag Stockholm. ISBN 91-38-04920-1 (Swedish)
^ Mansdominans i förändring: om ledningsgrupper och styrelser : betänkande by Sverige Utredningen om kvinnor på ledande poster i näringslivet
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x ^y ^z ^aa Cite error: The named reference books.google.se was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ A companion to gender history by: Teresa A. Meade, Merry E. Wiesner-Hanks
^ Template:Sv icon Stig Hadenius, Torbjörn Nilsson & Gunnar Åselius: Sveriges historia. Vad varje svensk bör veta (History of Sweden: "What every Swede should know")
^ Women's Roles in Latin America and the Caribbean by Kathryn A. Sloan
^ Janet L. Coryell: Negotiating boundaries of southern womanhood
^ Janet L. Coryell: Negotiating boundaries of southern womanhood
^ The Oxford encyclopedia of women in world history, Volym 1 Av Bonnie G. Smith
^ http://www.ub.gu.se/kvinn/portaler/kunskap/historik/
^ ^a ^b ^c Evan Roberts: Women's Rights and Women's Labor: Married Women's Property Laws and Labor Force Participation, 1860 1900
^ ^a ^b ^c Lilla Focus Uppslagsbok (Little Focus Encyclopedia) Focus Uppslagsböcker AB (1979) Template:Sv icon
^ ^a ^b http://www.ub.gu.se/kvinn/portaler/arbete/artal/
^ Ilse Abshagen Leitinger: The Costa Rican women's movement: a reader
^ http://www.mccarter.org/Education/mrs-packard/html/MRS.%20PACKARD%20Married%20Women's%20Property%20Act%20Hyperlink.pdf
^ ^a ^b http://www.haiticulture.ch/Reperes_chronologiques.html
^ http://www.helsinki.fi/science/xantippa/wle/wle14.html
^ History of the United States by Charles Austin Beard, Mary Ritter Beard
^ History of the United States by Charles Austin Beard, Mary Ritter Beard
^ Sisterhood is global: the international women's movement anthology by Robin Morgan
^ Courtship, love, and marriage in nineteenth-century English Canada by W. Peter Ward
^ Women's Roles in Latin America and the Caribbean by Kathryn A. Sloan
^ Inger Hultgren (Swedish): Kvinnors organisation och samhällets beslutsprocess (1982)
^ History of the United States by Charles Austin Beard, Mary Ritter Beard
^ The Oxford encyclopedia of women in world history, Volym 1 by Bonnie G. Smith
^ May, A.J., University of Rochester History
^ The Oxford encyclopedia of women in world history, Volym 1 Av Bonnie G. Smith
^ ^a ^b ^c http://www.kvinfo.dk/side/342/
^ Kaethe Schirmacher: The Modern Woman's Rights Movement
^ The educated woman: minds, bodies, and women's higher education in Britain, Germany and Spain, by Katharina Rowold
^ Barbara Alpern Engel: Women in Russia, 1700–2000
^ Courtship, love, and marriage in nineteenth-century English Canada by W. Peter Ward
^ Barbara Alpern Engel: Women in Russia, 1700–2000
^ http://www.ub.gu.se/kvinn/artal/
^ History of the United States by Charles Austin Beard, Mary Ritter Beard
^ "Women's History in America", Excerpted from Compton's Interactive Encyclopedia, 1995
^ http://www.rosadoc.be/site/rosa/english/pdf/factsheetsenglish/01.pdf
^ ^a ^b Women in the Middle East and North Africa: restoring women to history by Guity Nashat, Judith E. Tucker (1999)
^ Gender and crime in modern Europe by Margaret L. Arnot, Cornelie Usborne
^ Jennifer J. Jung-Kim: Gender and modernity in colonial Korea, University of California, Los Angeles
^ Japanese women: new feminist perspectives on the past, present, and future AvKumiko Fujimura-Fanselow, Atsuko Kameda
^ Gender and the modern research university by Patricia M. Mazón
^ The Oxford encyclopedia of women in world history, by Bonnie G. Smith
^ Latin American women and the search for social justice by Francesca Miller
^ ^a ^b Cite error: The named reference http://www.kvinfo.dk/side/341 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ Cite error: The named reference Christer Palmquist & Hans Kristian Widberg 2004 317 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ Carmen Diana Deere, Magdalena León de Leal: Empowering women: land and property rights in Latin America
^ Carmen Diana Deere, Magdalena León de Leal: Empowering women: land and property rights in Latin America
^ Gender and the modern research university by Patricia M. Mazón
^ http://www.ub.gu.se/kvinn/portaler/arbete/akademiker/
^ Carmen Diana Deere, Magdalena León de Leal: Empowering women: land and property rights in Latin America
^ Carmen Diana Deere, Magdalena León de Leal: Empowering women: land and property rights in Latin America
^ Gender and the modern research university by Patricia M. Mazón
^ Carmen Diana Deere, Magdalena León de Leal: Empowering women: land and property rights in Latin America
^ Carmen Diana Deere, Magdalena León de Leal: Empowering women: land and property rights in Latin America
^ Women's Roles in Latin America and the Caribbean by Kathryn A. Sloan
^ Jennifer J. Jung-Kim: Gender and modernity in colonial Korea, University of California, Los Angeles
^ Women's Roles in Latin America and the Caribbean by Kathryn A. Sloan
^ ^a ^b 417–418 (Nordisk familjebok / Uggleupplagan. 15. Kromat – Ledvätska)
^ Gender and the modern research university by Patricia M. Mazón
^ French women's writing, 1848–1994 by Diana Holmes
^ Gender and crime in modern Europe by Margaret L. Arnot, Cornelie Usborne
^ Asunción Lavrín: Women, Feminism and Social Change in Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay, 1890–1940
^ Women's higher education in comparative perspective, by Gail Paradise Kelly,Sheila Slaughter
^ Gender and the modern research university by Patricia M. Mazón
^ http://www.ub.gu.se/kvinn/portaler/arbete/akademiker/
^ Gender and the modern research university by Patricia M. Mazón
^ Women's Roles in Latin America and the Caribbean by Kathryn A. Sloan
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Cite error: The named reference VHA9YVC6GQC P5 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ ^a ^b http://countrystudies.us/portugal/50.htm
^ A companion to the anthropology of Japan by Jennifer Ellen Robertson
^ Barbara Alpern Engel: Women in Russia, 1700–2000
^ Carmen Diana Deere, Magdalena León de Leal: Empowering women: land and property rights in Latin America
^ Carmen Diana Deere, Magdalena León de Leal: Empowering women: land and property rights in Latin America
^ Carmen Diana Deere, Magdalena León de Leal: Empowering women: land and property rights in Latin America
^ Carmen Diana Deere, Magdalena León de Leal: Empowering women: land and property rights in Latin America
^ Women's Roles in Latin America and the Caribbean by Kathryn A. Sloan
^ Cite error: The named reference historia.fcs.ucr.ac.cr was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ Patit Paban Mishra: The history of Thailand
^ Stopes, Marie Carmichael and McKibbin, Ross (ed.), 1918 (2004). Married love. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280432-4. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help); |first= has numeric name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Short, R.V. (August 23, 2005). "New ways of preventing HIV infection: thinking simply, simply thinking". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 361 (1469). The Royal Society via PubMed (U.S. National Institutes of Health): 811–20. doi:10.1098/rstb.2005.1781. PMC 1609406. PMID 16627296.
^ ^a ^b Cite error: The named reference Judith Jeffrey Howard 1977 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ Routledge International Encyclopedia ... – Google Böcker
^ Jennifer J. Jung-Kim: Gender and modernity in colonial Korea, University of California, Los Angeles

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Dicker, Rory Cooke. (2008) A History of U.S. Feminisms. Berkeley: Seal Press. ISBN 1-58005-234-7
Rupp, Leila J. (2011): Transnational Women's Movements, European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, retrieved: June 22, 2011.
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[Schneir-1994-1] Schneir, Miram, 1972 (1994). Feminism: The Essential Historical Writings. Vintage Books. p. xiv. ISBN 0-679-75381-8. {{cite book}}: |first= has numeric name (help)

[2] Stopes, Marie Carmichael and McKibbin, Ross (ed.), 1918 (2004). Married love. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280432-4. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help); |first= has numeric name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[3] Short, R.V. (August 23, 2005). "New ways of preventing HIV infection: thinking simply, simply thinking". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 361 (1469). The Royal Society via PubMed (U.S. National Institutes of Health): 811–20. doi:10.1098/rstb.2005.1781. PMC 1609406. PMID 16627296.

[4] "Women's History in America", Excerpted from Compton's Interactive Encyclopedia, 1995

[5] Phillips, Melanie (2004). The Ascent of Woman: A History of the Suffragette Movement and the Ideas Behind It. London: Abacus. ISBN 978-0-349-11660-0.

[6] "Women, Power and The Public Sphere" by Anita Seibert & Dorota Roslaniec

[7] Slater, Abby. In Search of Margaret Fuller. New York: Delacorte Press, 1978: 89–90. ISBN 0-440-03944-4

[8] Dicker, 2008. pp. 28, 47–48.

[9] Dicker, 2008, pp. 40–43.

[10] Dicker, 2008, pp. 30, 38.

[test-11] The Library of Congress,2001.

[12] The Library of Congress, 2001.

[13] Miller, Bradford W. (1998). "Seneca Falls First Woman's Rights Convention of 1848; The Sacred Rites of the Nation" (PDF). Journal of Bahá’í Studies. 8 (3). Association for Bahá’í Studies. Retrieved 4–4–2012. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

[14] Penn, Michael L. (2003). Overcoming violence against women and girls: the international campaign to eradicate a worldwide problem (illustrated ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-0-7425-2500-9. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

[holy-15] Momen, Moojan; Lawson, B. Todd (2004). "Tahirih". In Jestice, Phyllis G. (ed.). Holy People of the World: A Cross-cultural Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-57607-355-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

[maneck-16] Maneck, Susan (1994). "Religion and Women". Albany: SUNY Press.

[MM-17] Momen, Moojan (May, 1983). "The Social Basis of the Babi Upheavals in Iran (1848-53): A Preliminary Analysis". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 15 (2). Cambridge University Press: 157–183. JSTOR 162988. Retrieved 4-4-2012. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)

[18] 
Rev. Wilson, Samuel G. (1914). "Bahaism and the Woman Question - II". In Wilder, Royal Gould; Pierson, Delavan Leonard; Pierson, Arthur Tappan; Sherwood, James Manning (eds.). The Missionary review of the world. Vol. 37. Funk & Wagnalls. pp. 915–919. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)

Rev. Wilson, Samuel G. (1915). "The Bayan of the Bab". In Armstrong, William Park (ed.). The Princeton Theological Review. Vol. 13. MacCalla & Company Inc. pp. 633–654. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)

Rev. Wilson, Samuel G. (1915). Bahaism and Its Claims: A Study of the Religion Promulgated by Baha Ullah and Abdul Baha. Fleming H. Revell co. pp. 171–172.

[19] Rev. Wilson, Samuel G. (1914). "Bahaism and the Woman Question - II". In Wilder, Royal Gould; Pierson, Delavan Leonard; Pierson, Arthur Tappan; Sherwood, James Manning (eds.). The Missionary review of the world. Vol. 37. Funk & Wagnalls. pp. 915–919. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)

[20] Rev. Wilson, Samuel G. (1915). "The Bayan of the Bab". In Armstrong, William Park (ed.). The Princeton Theological Review. Vol. 13. MacCalla & Company Inc. pp. 633–654. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)

[21] Rev. Wilson, Samuel G. (1915). Bahaism and Its Claims: A Study of the Religion Promulgated by Baha Ullah and Abdul Baha. Fleming H. Revell co. pp. 171–172.

[vaw-19] Milani, Farzaneh (1992). Veils and words: the emerging voices of Iranian women writers. Contemporary issues in the Middle East (illustrated ed.). I.B.Tauris. pp. 295, esp. 3, 8, 27, 49, 53, 61, 63, 77–82, 90. ISBN 978-1-85043-574-7.

[PSmith-20] Smith, Peter (2000). "Táhirih". A concise encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. pp. 332–333. ISBN 1-85168-184-1.

[21] 
Milani, Farzaneh (1992). Veils and words: the emerging voices of Iranian women writers. Contemporary issues in the Middle East (illustrated ed.). I.B.Tauris. pp. 295, esp. 3, 8, 27, 49, 53, 61, 63, 77–82, 90. ISBN 978-1-85043-574-7.

Nafisi, Azar (February, 1999). "The Veiled Threat". New Republic. 220 (8): 24–29. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help) (at the time Azar Nafisi was a visiting professor at the Johns Hopkins University School of Advanced International Studies.)

Mfon, Victoria (20–12–2006). "Azar Nafisi: Voices from the Gaps". Artist Pages. University of Minnesota. Retrieved 4–2–2012. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

Zahedi, Ashraf (Fall, 2007). "Contested Meaning of the Veil and Political Ideologies of Iranian Regimes". Journal of Middle East Women's Studies. 3 (3): 75–98. Retrieved 4–2–2012. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)

Shahidian, Hammed (Summer, 1995). "International trends: Islam, politics, and problems of writing women's history in Iran". Journal of Women's History. 7 (2). {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)

[25] Milani, Farzaneh (1992). Veils and words: the emerging voices of Iranian women writers. Contemporary issues in the Middle East (illustrated ed.). I.B.Tauris. pp. 295, esp. 3, 8, 27, 49, 53, 61, 63, 77–82, 90. ISBN 978-1-85043-574-7.

[26] Nafisi, Azar (February, 1999). "The Veiled Threat". New Republic. 220 (8): 24–29. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help) (at the time Azar Nafisi was a visiting professor at the Johns Hopkins University School of Advanced International Studies.)

[27] Mfon, Victoria (20–12–2006). "Azar Nafisi: Voices from the Gaps". Artist Pages. University of Minnesota. Retrieved 4–2–2012. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

[28] Zahedi, Ashraf (Fall, 2007). "Contested Meaning of the Veil and Political Ideologies of Iranian Regimes". Journal of Middle East Women's Studies. 3 (3): 75–98. Retrieved 4–2–2012. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)

[29] Shahidian, Hammed (Summer, 1995). "International trends: Islam, politics, and problems of writing women's history in Iran". Journal of Women's History. 7 (2). {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)

[22] Nafisi, Azar (November 27, 2010). "Iran's women: canaries in the coalmine; The battle for emancipation is part of a proud tradition that will shape the future of the regime and Islam itself" (PDF). The Times of London. p. 21. Retrieved 4–2–2012. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

[23] "Women, Power and The Public Sphere" by Anita Seibert & Dorota Roslaniec

[24] Early Closing Act 1899 No 38

[womenshistory.about.com-25] Cite error: The named reference womenshistory.about.com was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

[26] Christine Bladh (Swedish): Månglerskor: att sälja från korg och bod i Stockholm 1819–1846 (1991)

[Richard_J_Evans_1979-27] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Richard J Evans (1979). Kvinnorörelsens historia i Europa, USA, Australien och Nya Zeeland 1840–1920 (The Feminists: Women's Emancipation Movements in Europe, America and Australasia, 1840–1920) Helsingborg: LiberFörlag Stockholm. ISBN 91-38-04920-1 (Swedish)

[ReferenceC-28] Mansdominans i förändring: om ledningsgrupper och styrelser : betänkande by Sverige Utredningen om kvinnor på ledande poster i näringslivet

[books.google.se-29] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x ^y ^z ^aa Cite error: The named reference books.google.se was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

[30] A companion to gender history by: Teresa A. Meade, Merry E. Wiesner-Hanks

[31] Template:Sv icon Stig Hadenius, Torbjörn Nilsson & Gunnar Åselius: Sveriges historia. Vad varje svensk bör veta (History of Sweden: "What every Swede should know")

[32] Women's Roles in Latin America and the Caribbean by Kathryn A. Sloan

[33] Janet L. Coryell: Negotiating boundaries of southern womanhood

[34] Janet L. Coryell: Negotiating boundaries of southern womanhood

[35] The Oxford encyclopedia of women in world history, Volym 1 Av Bonnie G. Smith

[36] ttp://www.ub.gu.se/kvinn/portaler/kunskap/historik/

[spanalumni.academia.edu-37] Evan Roberts: Women's Rights and Women's Labor: Married Women's Property Laws and Labor Force Participation, 1860 1900

[Lilla_Focus_Uppslagsbok_1979-38] Lilla Focus Uppslagsbok (Little Focus Encyclopedia) Focus Uppslagsböcker AB (1979) Template:Sv icon

[ub.gu.se-39] ttp://www.ub.gu.se/kvinn/portaler/arbete/artal/

[40] Ilse Abshagen Leitinger: The Costa Rican women's movement: a reader

[41] ttp://www.mccarter.org/Education/mrs-packard/html/MRS.%20PACKARD%20Married%20Women's%20Property%20Act%20Hyperlink.pdf

[haiticulture.ch-42] ttp://www.haiticulture.ch/Reperes_chronologiques.html

[helsinki.fi-43] ttp://www.helsinki.fi/science/xantippa/wle/wle14.html

[44] History of the United States by Charles Austin Beard, Mary Ritter Beard

[45] History of the United States by Charles Austin Beard, Mary Ritter Beard

[46] Sisterhood is global: the international women's movement anthology by Robin Morgan

[47] Courtship, love, and marriage in nineteenth-century English Canada by W. Peter Ward

[48] Women's Roles in Latin America and the Caribbean by Kathryn A. Sloan

[49] Inger Hultgren (Swedish): Kvinnors organisation och samhällets beslutsprocess (1982)

[50] History of the United States by Charles Austin Beard, Mary Ritter Beard

[51] The Oxford encyclopedia of women in world history, Volym 1 by Bonnie G. Smith

[Roch-52] May, A.J., University of Rochester History

[53] The Oxford encyclopedia of women in world history, Volym 1 Av Bonnie G. Smith

[kvinfo.dk-54] ttp://www.kvinfo.dk/side/342/

[55] Kaethe Schirmacher: The Modern Woman's Rights Movement

[56] The educated woman: minds, bodies, and women's higher education in Britain, Germany and Spain, by Katharina Rowold

[57] Barbara Alpern Engel: Women in Russia, 1700–2000

[58] Courtship, love, and marriage in nineteenth-century English Canada by W. Peter Ward

[59] Barbara Alpern Engel: Women in Russia, 1700–2000

[60] ttp://www.ub.gu.se/kvinn/artal/

[61] History of the United States by Charles Austin Beard, Mary Ritter Beard

[62] "Women's History in America", Excerpted from Compton's Interactive Encyclopedia, 1995

[rosadoc.be-63] ttp://www.rosadoc.be/site/rosa/english/pdf/factsheetsenglish/01.pdf

[North_Africa_1999-64] Women in the Middle East and North Africa: restoring women to history by Guity Nashat, Judith E. Tucker (1999)

[65] Gender and crime in modern Europe by Margaret L. Arnot, Cornelie Usborne

[66] Jennifer J. Jung-Kim: Gender and modernity in colonial Korea, University of California, Los Angeles

[67] Japanese women: new feminist perspectives on the past, present, and future AvKumiko Fujimura-Fanselow, Atsuko Kameda

[68] Gender and the modern research university by Patricia M. Mazón

[69] The Oxford encyclopedia of women in world history, by Bonnie G. Smith

[70] Latin American women and the search for social justice by Francesca Miller

[http://www.kvinfo.dk/side/341-71] Cite error: The named reference http://www.kvinfo.dk/side/341 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

[Christer_Palmquist_&_Hans_Kristian_Widberg_2004_317-72] Cite error: The named reference Christer Palmquist & Hans Kristian Widberg 2004 317 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

[73] Carmen Diana Deere, Magdalena León de Leal: Empowering women: land and property rights in Latin America

[74] Carmen Diana Deere, Magdalena León de Leal: Empowering women: land and property rights in Latin America

[75] Gender and the modern research university by Patricia M. Mazón

[76] ttp://www.ub.gu.se/kvinn/portaler/arbete/akademiker/

[77] Carmen Diana Deere, Magdalena León de Leal: Empowering women: land and property rights in Latin America

[78] Carmen Diana Deere, Magdalena León de Leal: Empowering women: land and property rights in Latin America

[79] Gender and the modern research university by Patricia M. Mazón

[80] Carmen Diana Deere, Magdalena León de Leal: Empowering women: land and property rights in Latin America

[81] Carmen Diana Deere, Magdalena León de Leal: Empowering women: land and property rights in Latin America

[82] Women's Roles in Latin America and the Caribbean by Kathryn A. Sloan

[83] Jennifer J. Jung-Kim: Gender and modernity in colonial Korea, University of California, Los Angeles

[84] Women's Roles in Latin America and the Caribbean by Kathryn A. Sloan

[runeberg.org-85] 417–418 (Nordisk familjebok / Uggleupplagan. 15. Kromat – Ledvätska)

[86] Gender and the modern research university by Patricia M. Mazón

[87] French women's writing, 1848–1994 by Diana Holmes

[88] Gender and crime in modern Europe by Margaret L. Arnot, Cornelie Usborne

[89] Asunción Lavrín: Women, Feminism and Social Change in Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay, 1890–1940

[90] Women's higher education in comparative perspective, by Gail Paradise Kelly,Sheila Slaughter

[91] Gender and the modern research university by Patricia M. Mazón

[92] ttp://www.ub.gu.se/kvinn/portaler/arbete/akademiker/

[93] Gender and the modern research university by Patricia M. Mazón

[94] Women's Roles in Latin America and the Caribbean by Kathryn A. Sloan

[VHA9YVC6GQC_P5-95] Cite error: The named reference VHA9YVC6GQC P5 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

[countrystudies.us-96] ttp://countrystudies.us/portugal/50.htm

[97] A companion to the anthropology of Japan by Jennifer Ellen Robertson

[98] Barbara Alpern Engel: Women in Russia, 1700–2000

[99] Carmen Diana Deere, Magdalena León de Leal: Empowering women: land and property rights in Latin America

[100] Carmen Diana Deere, Magdalena León de Leal: Empowering women: land and property rights in Latin America

[101] Carmen Diana Deere, Magdalena León de Leal: Empowering women: land and property rights in Latin America

[102] Carmen Diana Deere, Magdalena León de Leal: Empowering women: land and property rights in Latin America

[103] Women's Roles in Latin America and the Caribbean by Kathryn A. Sloan

[historia.fcs.ucr.ac.cr-104] Cite error: The named reference historia.fcs.ucr.ac.cr was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

[105] Patit Paban Mishra: The history of Thailand

[106] Stopes, Marie Carmichael and McKibbin, Ross (ed.), 1918 (2004). Married love. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280432-4. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help); |first= has numeric name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[107] Short, R.V. (August 23, 2005). "New ways of preventing HIV infection: thinking simply, simply thinking". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 361 (1469). The Royal Society via PubMed (U.S. National Institutes of Health): 811–20. doi:10.1098/rstb.2005.1781. PMC 1609406. PMID 16627296.

[Judith_Jeffrey_Howard_1977-108] Cite error: The named reference Judith Jeffrey Howard 1977 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

[109] Routledge International Encyclopedia ... – Google Böcker

[110] Jennifer J. Jung-Kim: Gender and modernity in colonial Korea, University of California, Los Angeles

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@@ Line 176: / Line 176: @@
 ; 1915
 * USA: In 1915 the [[American Medical Association]] began to admit women members.<ref>[http://www.wic.org/misc/history.htm, "Women's History in America"], Excerpted from Compton's Interactive Encyclopedia, 1995</ref>
+; 1900
+* Belgium: Legal majority for unmarried women<ref name="rosadoc.be">http://www.rosadoc.be/site/rosa/english/pdf/factsheetsenglish/01.pdf</ref>
+* Egypt: A school for female teachers is founded in Cairo <ref name="North Africa 1999">Women in the Middle East and North Africa: restoring women to history by Guity Nashat, Judith E. Tucker (1999)</ref>
+* France: Women allowed to practice law<ref>Gender and crime in modern Europe by Margaret L. Arnot, Cornelie Usborne</ref>
+* Korea: The post office profession is open to women and thereby open the public work market for women <ref>[http://books.google.se/books?id=QDWkn7Fj-b4C&pg=PA102&lpg=PA102&dq=Yun+Ko-ra+western+clothes&source=bl&ots=fV_z_MM5zB&sig=7nqyRX_Qr_9dTc7dpVz1C74_acY&hl=sv&ei=Vi3UTqGqDbL24QTu5K2hAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved=0CB8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Jennifer J. Jung-Kim: Gender and modernity in colonial Korea, University of California, Los Angeles]</ref>
+* Tunisia: The first public elementary school for girls<ref name="North Africa 1999"/>
+* Japan: The first Women's University <ref>Japanese women: new feminist perspectives on the past, present, and future AvKumiko Fujimura-Fanselow, Atsuko Kameda</ref>
+* Baden, Germany: Universities open to women<ref>[http://books.google.se/books?id=_SKPLZtwulQC&pg=PA10&lpg=PA10&dq=switzerland+university+women+1865&source=bl&ots=jTTe4BGfIr&sig=9tKXuJLYP5P-75TAt3Znu2lhWwI&hl=sv&ei=dOLTTtqjB4n_4QS-t4Ub&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Gender and the modern research university by Patricia M. Mazón]</ref>
+* Sweden: Maternity leave for female industrial workers<ref name="ub.gu.se"/>
+; 1901
+* Bulgaria: Universities open to women<ref>[http://books.google.se/books?id=EFI7tr9XK6EC&pg=PA189&dq=feminist+history+serbia&hl=sv&ei=xjvQTuT_ItHS4QTkspBl&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false The Oxford encyclopedia of women in world history, by Bonnie G. Smith]</ref>
+* Cuba: Universities open to women <ref>[http://books.google.se/books?id=sXiTQpR3crwC&pg=PA48&dq=universities+women+mexico&hl=sv&ei=SADVTua0Iq7Y4QSa06mYAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CEEQ6AEwAjge#v=onepage&q&f=false Latin American women and the search for social justice by Francesca Miller]</ref>
+* Denmark: Maternity leave for all women<ref name="http://www.kvinfo.dk/side/341"/>
+* Sweden: Women are given four weeks maternity leave.<ref name="Christer Palmquist & Hans Kristian Widberg 2004 317"/>
+; 1902
+* China: [[Foot binding]] is abolished.
+* El Salvador: Married women granted separate economy <ref>[http://books.google.se/books?id=IgtwlsSHLToC&pg=PA43&dq=women+civil+code+argentina+1869&hl=sv&ei=lineToXNC4n34QTL6d2cBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Carmen Diana Deere, Magdalena León de Leal: Empowering women: land and property rights in Latin America]</ref>
+* El Salvador: Legal majority for married women <ref>[http://books.google.se/books?id=IgtwlsSHLToC&pg=PA43&dq=women+civil+code+argentina+1869&hl=sv&ei=lineToXNC4n34QTL6d2cBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Carmen Diana Deere, Magdalena León de Leal: Empowering women: land and property rights in Latin America]</ref>
+; 1903
+* Bavaria, Germany: Universities open to women<ref>[http://books.google.se/books?id=_SKPLZtwulQC&pg=PA10&lpg=PA10&dq=switzerland+university+women+1865&source=bl&ots=jTTe4BGfIr&sig=9tKXuJLYP5P-75TAt3Znu2lhWwI&hl=sv&ei=dOLTTtqjB4n_4QS-t4Ub&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Gender and the modern research university by Patricia M. Mazón]</ref>
+* Sweden: Public medical offices open to women<ref>http://www.ub.gu.se/kvinn/portaler/arbete/akademiker/</ref>
+; 1904
+* Mexico: Divorce is legalized.
+* Nicaragua: Married women granted separate economy <ref>[http://books.google.se/books?id=IgtwlsSHLToC&pg=PA43&dq=women+civil+code+argentina+1869&hl=sv&ei=lineToXNC4n34QTL6d2cBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Carmen Diana Deere, Magdalena León de Leal: Empowering women: land and property rights in Latin America]</ref>
+* Nicaragua: Legal majority for married women <ref>[http://books.google.se/books?id=IgtwlsSHLToC&pg=PA43&dq=women+civil+code+argentina+1869&hl=sv&ei=lineToXNC4n34QTL6d2cBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Carmen Diana Deere, Magdalena León de Leal: Empowering women: land and property rights in Latin America]</ref>
+* Württemberg, Germany: Universities open to women<ref>[http://books.google.se/books?id=_SKPLZtwulQC&pg=PA10&lpg=PA10&dq=switzerland+university+women+1865&source=bl&ots=jTTe4BGfIr&sig=9tKXuJLYP5P-75TAt3Znu2lhWwI&hl=sv&ei=dOLTTtqjB4n_4QS-t4Ub&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Gender and the modern research university by Patricia M. Mazón]</ref>
+; 1905
+* Iceland: Educational institutions open to women<ref name="Richard J Evans 1979"/>
+* Russia: Universities open to women<ref name="Richard J Evans 1979"/>
+; 1906
+* Finland (to stand for election).
+* Honduras: Married women granted separate economy <ref>[http://books.google.se/books?id=IgtwlsSHLToC&pg=PA43&dq=women+civil+code+argentina+1869&hl=sv&ei=lineToXNC4n34QTL6d2cBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Carmen Diana Deere, Magdalena León de Leal: Empowering women: land and property rights in Latin America]</ref>
+* Honduras: Legal majority for married women <ref>[http://books.google.se/books?id=IgtwlsSHLToC&pg=PA43&dq=women+civil+code+argentina+1869&hl=sv&ei=lineToXNC4n34QTL6d2cBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Carmen Diana Deere, Magdalena León de Leal: Empowering women: land and property rights in Latin America]</ref>
+* Honduras: Divorce is legalized <ref>Women's Roles in Latin America and the Caribbean by Kathryn A. Sloan</ref>
+* Korea: The profession of nurse is allowed for women<ref>[http://books.google.se/books?id=QDWkn7Fj-b4C&pg=PA102&lpg=PA102&dq=Yun+Ko-ra+western+clothes&source=bl&ots=fV_z_MM5zB&sig=7nqyRX_Qr_9dTc7dpVz1C74_acY&hl=sv&ei=Vi3UTqGqDbL24QTu5K2hAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved=0CB8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Jennifer J. Jung-Kim: Gender and modernity in colonial Korea, University of California, Los Angeles]</ref>
+* Nicaragua: Divorce is legalized <ref>Women's Roles in Latin America and the Caribbean by Kathryn A. Sloan</ref>
+* Sweden : Municipal suffrage, since 1862 granted to unmarried women, granted to married women <ref name="runeberg.org">[http://runeberg.org/nfbo/0225.html 417–418 (Nordisk familjebok / Uggleupplagan. 15. Kromat – Ledvätska)<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
+* Saxony, Germany: Universities open to women<ref>[http://books.google.se/books?id=_SKPLZtwulQC&pg=PA10&lpg=PA10&dq=switzerland+university+women+1865&source=bl&ots=jTTe4BGfIr&sig=9tKXuJLYP5P-75TAt3Znu2lhWwI&hl=sv&ei=dOLTTtqjB4n_4QS-t4Ub&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Gender and the modern research university by Patricia M. Mazón]</ref>
+; 1907
+* France: Married women given control of their income <ref>French women's writing, 1848–1994 by Diana Holmes</ref>
+* France: Women allowed guardianship of children<ref>Gender and crime in modern Europe by Margaret L. Arnot, Cornelie Usborne</ref>
+* Great Britain: [[Matrimonial Causes Act 1907]]
+* Japan: [[Tohoku University]], the first (private) coeducational university.
+* Norway (to stand for election).
+* Finland (first female Members of Parliament).
+* Uruguay: Divorce is legalized <ref>Asunción Lavrín: Women, Feminism and Social Change in Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay, 1890–1940</ref>
+; 1908
+* Belgium: Women may act as legal witnesses in court<ref name="Richard J Evans 1979"/>
+* Denmark: Juridical professions of lower rank open to women<ref name="kvinfo.dk"/>
+* Denmark: Unmarried women are made legal guardian of their children<ref name="http://www.kvinfo.dk/side/341"/>
+* Peru: Universities open to women<ref>[http://books.google.se/books?id=V-CKcuRAu8EC&pg=PA64&dq=women+universities+peru+1918&hl=sv&ei=pwLZTqrpJ4na4QT04YXXDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=women%20universities%20peru%201918&f=false Women's higher education in comparative perspective, by Gail Paradise Kelly,Sheila Slaughter]</ref>
+* Prussia, Alsace-Lorraine and Hesse, Germany: Universities open to women<ref>[http://books.google.se/books?id=_SKPLZtwulQC&pg=PA10&lpg=PA10&dq=switzerland+university+women+1865&source=bl&ots=jTTe4BGfIr&sig=9tKXuJLYP5P-75TAt3Znu2lhWwI&hl=sv&ei=dOLTTtqjB4n_4QS-t4Ub&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Gender and the modern research university by Patricia M. Mazón]</ref>
+; 1909
+* Sweden: Women granted eligibility to municipal councils <ref name="runeberg.org"/>
+* Sweden: The phrase "Swedish man" are removed from the application forms to public offices and women are thereby approved as applicants to most public professions<ref>http://www.ub.gu.se/kvinn/portaler/arbete/akademiker/</ref>
+* Mecklenburg, Germany: Universities open to women<ref>[http://books.google.se/books?id=_SKPLZtwulQC&pg=PA10&lpg=PA10&dq=switzerland+university+women+1865&source=bl&ots=jTTe4BGfIr&sig=9tKXuJLYP5P-75TAt3Znu2lhWwI&hl=sv&ei=dOLTTtqjB4n_4QS-t4Ub&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Gender and the modern research university by Patricia M. Mazón]</ref>
+; 1910
+* Ecuador: Divorce is legalized <ref>Women's Roles in Latin America and the Caribbean by Kathryn A. Sloan</ref>
+* Korea: College courses for women (at [[Ewha Womans University]]).
+; 1911
+* Portugal: Civil offices open to women<ref name="VHA9YVC6GQC P5"/>
+* Portugal: Legal majority for married women <ref name="VHA9YVC6GQC P5"/> (rescinded in 1933)<ref name="countrystudies.us">http://countrystudies.us/portugal/50.htm</ref>
+* Portugal: Divorce legalized<ref name="countrystudies.us"/>
+; 1913
+* Japan: Public universities open to women<ref>[http://books.google.se/books?id=8UD158VM3nMC&pg=PA469&dq=japan+women+education+1874&hl=sv&ei=tjTVTpC6Es344QTglIG5AQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=9&sqi=2&ved=0CFsQ6AEwCA#v=onepage&q&f=false A companion to the anthropology of Japan by Jennifer Ellen Robertson]</ref>
+* Portugal: The first university law degree is granted to a woman<ref name="VHA9YVC6GQC P5"/>
+; 1914
+* Russia: Married women allowed their own internal passport<ref>[http://books.google.se/books?id=VDBC0hupLqsC&pg=PA35&lpg=PA35&dq=women+history+russia+1753&source=bl&ots=B50loPO3ju&sig=Wbl3e_uzS0ygjD3S8XFGrF40fWQ&hl=sv&sa=X&ei=mtP1TtzJHLD74QTs7sWNCA&sqi=2&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false Barbara Alpern Engel: Women in Russia, 1700–2000]</ref>
+; 1917
+* Cuba: Married women granted separate economy <ref>[http://books.google.se/books?id=IgtwlsSHLToC&pg=PA43&dq=women+civil+code+argentina+1869&hl=sv&ei=lineToXNC4n34QTL6d2cBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Carmen Diana Deere, Magdalena León de Leal: Empowering women: land and property rights in Latin America]</ref>
+* Cuba: Legal majority for married women <ref>[http://books.google.se/books?id=IgtwlsSHLToC&pg=PA43&dq=women+civil+code+argentina+1869&hl=sv&ei=lineToXNC4n34QTL6d2cBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Carmen Diana Deere, Magdalena León de Leal: Empowering women: land and property rights in Latin America]</ref>
+* Netherlands (to stand for election)
+* Mexico: Legal majority for married women<ref>[http://books.google.se/books?id=IgtwlsSHLToC&pg=PA43&dq=women+civil+code+argentina+1869&hl=sv&ei=lineToXNC4n34QTL6d2cBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Carmen Diana Deere, Magdalena León de Leal: Empowering women: land and property rights in Latin America]</ref>
+* Mexico: Divorce legalized<ref>[http://books.google.se/books?id=IgtwlsSHLToC&pg=PA43&dq=women+civil+code+argentina+1869&hl=sv&ei=lineToXNC4n34QTL6d2cBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Carmen Diana Deere, Magdalena León de Leal: Empowering women: land and property rights in Latin America]</ref>
 ; 1918
+* Cuba: Divorce is legalized <ref>Women's Roles in Latin America and the Caribbean by Kathryn A. Sloan</ref>
+* Nicaragua: The first female obtains a university degree<ref name="historia.fcs.ucr.ac.cr"/>
+* Soviet Russia: The first Soviet Constitution explicitly declares the equal rights of men and women.
+* Thailand: Universities open to women <ref>[http://books.google.se/books?id=HzTHaIEduwYC&pg=PA98&dq=women+history+universities+Thailand&hl=sv&ei=tJrbTs3_JqX24QSh1PzVDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=8&sqi=2&ved=0CGIQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q&f=false Patit Paban Mishra: The history of Thailand]</ref>
 * England: In 1918 [[Marie Stopes]], who believed in equality in marriage and the importance of women's sexual desire, published ''[[Married Love]]'',<ref>{{cite book|author=Stopes, Marie Carmichael and McKibbin, Ross (ed.)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=M13Q0aymFJoC|title=Married love|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-280432-4|year=2004|first=1918}}</ref> a sex manual that, according to a survey of American academics in 1935, was one of the 25 most influential books of the previous 50 years, ahead of ''[[Special relativity|Relativity]]'' by [[Albert Einstein]] and ''[[The Interpretation of Dreams]]'' by [[Sigmund Freud]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1098/rstb.2005.1781|author=Short, R.V.|date=August 23, 2005|title=New ways of preventing HIV infection: thinking simply, simply thinking|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=361|issue=1469|pages=811–20|publisher=The Royal Society via PubMed (U.S. National Institutes of Health)|pmid=16627296|pmc=1609406}}</ref>
+; 1919
+* Italy: Married women granted separate economy<ref name="Judith Jeffrey Howard 1977"/>
+* Italy: Public offices on lower levels are opened to women<ref name="Judith Jeffrey Howard 1977"/>
+* Great Britain: The [[Sex Disqualification (Removal) Act 1919]].
 ; 1920
+* China: The first female students are accepted in the [[Peking University]], soon followed by universities all over China.<ref>[http://books.google.se/books?id=N0ths5DOgGgC&pg=PA737&lpg=PA737&dq=china+beijing+woman+student+1920&source=bl&ots=bV7iSWWVfG&sig=FblBiOG4MWmMdWuU9WuZFa0IJqk&hl=sv&ei=CpevS7muFsm4-QaZtfnmCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CBMQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=china%20beijing%20woman%20student%201920&f=false Routledge International Encyclopedia ... – Google Böcker<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
+* Canada: Women granted the right to stand for election, with some restrictions/conditions.
+* Haiti: The apothecary profession opened to women.<ref name="haiticulture.ch"/>
+* Korea: The profession of telephone operator, as well as several other professions, such as store clerks, are open to women<ref>[http://books.google.se/books?id=QDWkn7Fj-b4C&pg=PA102&lpg=PA102&dq=Yun+Ko-ra+western+clothes&source=bl&ots=fV_z_MM5zB&sig=7nqyRX_Qr_9dTc7dpVz1C74_acY&hl=sv&ei=Vi3UTqGqDbL24QTu5K2hAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved=0CB8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Jennifer J. Jung-Kim: Gender and modernity in colonial Korea, University of California, Los Angeles]</ref>
+* Portugal: Secondary school open to women<ref name="VHA9YVC6GQC P5"/>
+* Sweden: Legal majority for married women and equal marriage rights<ref name="Lilla Focus Uppslagsbok 1979"/>
 * USA: The 19th Amendment is signed into law, granting all American women the right to vote.