Alexandra M. Espinosa is an economist and Senior Lecturer in the Mathematics Department of Escuela Politécnica Nacional (Ecuador), and a Part-Time Temporary Lecturer in the Deusto Business School. Previously, she taught at the University of the Basque Country (Spain), the Public University of Navarra (Spain) and the Alicante University (Spain). She collaborated with the United Nations University and the Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research (ISSER) in Ghana with the financial of support of the University of Sussex. She completed her PhD degree at the University of the Basque Country (Spain) in Economics majoring in Statistics and Econometrics, and her BA in Economics at the University Pompeu Fabra (Spain). Address: Quito, Pichincha, Ecuador
Journal of International Migration and Integration, 2019
This paper analyzes the relationship between the international immigration rates and the unemploy... more This paper analyzes the relationship between the international immigration rates and the unemployment rate in Spain for the period 1981–2016. During this period, immigration and employment grew rapidly, but in 2008, the Spanish economy collapsed with a significant increase in unemployment. This paper shows that, due to the characteristics of the migration policy in Spain, unemployment and immigration are cointegrated and, in addition, immigration causes unemployment. This causal relationship is positive, in the sense that the greater the immigration, the greater the unemployment. Last but not least, we find a positive long-term relation between immigration flows and GDP per capita growth.
This paper analyses the statistical properties of the threshold model of collective actions. We e... more This paper analyses the statistical properties of the threshold model of collective actions. We establish the conditions of the threshold model under which the sequence of decisions is exchangeable. Then, if the probability of participation is a continuous and strictly increasing function of the willingness to participate, then the unique urn representation of the threshold model is the Pólya urn. In such a case, the sequence of participation rates converges almost surely to a random variable Z that has a beta distribution. Also, we show the critical mass and self-sustaining participation rates are fixed points of the distribution function. Further, we discuss the non-exchangeable model of collective actions, and we define the feedback leadership condition. We apply these results to characterize the process of the adoption of hybrid corn in Iowa, and the diffusion of the Internet for different levels of income.
This article shows that the threshold model appropriately analysed can explain the emigration pro... more This article shows that the threshold model appropriately analysed can explain the emigration process as a consequence of the network features, where the willingness to emigrate depends on the personal and household conditions borne by the emigrant. In such a case, the emigration process can be defined in terms of a Polya schema, and the emigration rate converges almost surely to a random variable with a beta distribution, which fully characterizes the network (assimilation, integration, separation or marginalization). The model is applied to Ecuador, which has experienced an unprecedented wave of emigration since 1998. We show that, despite the massive exodus, the process does not constitute a diaspora, because Ecuadorians do not interact appropriately with natives.
This paper analyses the properties of the Cournot-Ricardo solution if workers have incentives to ... more This paper analyses the properties of the Cournot-Ricardo solution if workers have incentives to move from low to high profit industries. By construction, these movements contribute to the improvement of the competitiveness of countries with free movement of labour, due to the increase in size of industries with a comparative advantage. However, in general, it is not sufficient to guarantee convergence to the Ricardo-Mill solution. In conclusion, under the inter-industry movement of labour, economies are more competitive, but specialisation might not coincide with that predicted by the Ricardo-Mill model.
Under general conditions, it has been proved that free trade improves the welfare of open economi... more Under general conditions, it has been proved that free trade improves the welfare of open economies. However, the conditions to attain the free trade equilibrium are non trivial: when the productive process is planned, industries do not know the price
that will prevail, while the production is not available in the world markets, generating a “general price uncertainty” due to the time–consuming nature of productive process. Consequently, additional assumptions is required to construct the time path driving economies from the autarky to the free trade. Thus, we assume commitment of trade and continuum of goods with the aim of handle with such a problems. This paper finds the general conditions for a smooth time path stable, monotonic and that guarantees a successful process of liberalization.
In the last 40 years, the liberal thinking has been accepted and introduced into economic theory.... more In the last 40 years, the liberal thinking has been accepted and introduced into economic theory. This paper deals with the analysis of the potential incompatibility between liberal thinking and the Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR). We argue that, with minor exceptions, the ICESCR have not been appropiately considered in the economic theory. Consequently, considering economic rights and theory as incompatible subjects is a steril debate. It is compulsory for researchers and policy makers to open a productive discussion, leading to valid solutions in both matters.
Under general conditions, it has been proved that free trade improves the welfare of economies. N... more Under general conditions, it has been proved that free trade improves the welfare of economies. Nevertheless, these conditions are not sufficient to guarantee that exist a path
to drive an economy from autarky to free trade equilibrium. So that, it is not enough to know that economies are better off under free trade, if we do not know how to drive an economy from autarky to free trade. This paper analyzes the dynamic properties of the Ricardo–Mill model under commitment trade. One of the most features of this paper is its emphasis on the role of the information and predictions over the dynamic properties of the model.
DT Departamento Economía Universidad Pública de Navarra, 2006
""Los resultados econométricos muestran que el impacto negativo de las inmigraciones internaciona... more ""Los resultados econométricos muestran que el impacto negativo de las inmigraciones internacionales sobre las economías que las reciben es muy inferior al predicho por las teorías convencionales. En este artículo, explicaremos porqué en economías integradas, con individuos que son consumidores propietarios de factores, el impacto de las inmigraciones sobre la ocupación y el salario de los nativos puede ser inclusive positiva. Mostraremos que los resultados obtenidos por la teoría convencional es un resultado de corto plazo, tal como revelan los resultados empíricos. Asimismo, aprovecharemos para repasar brevemente estas teorías convencionales, al paso que explicamos la importancia de desarrollar las teorías del mercado de trabajo en marcos teóricos caracterizados por economías globalizadas.""
Biltoki DT Departamento Economía Aplicada III Universidad del País Vasco, 2000
El informe sobre las Migraciones de Reemplazo (ONU,2000) sugiere que el envejecimiento de la pobl... more El informe sobre las Migraciones de Reemplazo (ONU,2000) sugiere que el envejecimiento de la población activa de los países ricos puede compensarse mediante la inmigración. Esto contrasta con las políticas restrictivas de la UE en materia de inmigración. Este trabajo muestra que a largo plazo la política de inmigración no ha logrado adecuar la inmigración a la evolución del desempleo. A corto plazo, el modelo VAR muestra que la inmigración en España es parcialmente similar a los países con altas tasas de inmigración, ya que el desempleo no causa la inmigración pero la inmigración causa débilmente el desempleo.
DT Departamento Economía Aplicada IV Universidad del País Vasco, 2002
"In a perfect competitive world, under price equalization and free trade, the international trade... more "In a perfect competitive world, under price equalization and free trade, the international trade theory tends to assure that individuals are better off than in autarchy. Moreover, if wages are the same across countries then there is no incentives for migration. Hence, trade could be a substitutive for migration. Nevertheless, this paper shows that is not true that both countries are better off if labor endowments across countries are very different. Additionally, we show that the equilibria and the welfare of individuals depends on the dynamics of transition from autarchy
to open economy. To proof both assertion, a very standard model is used: preferences and production function are homogeneous of degree one and labor supply is perfectly elastic. Nevertheless, this paper using examples at undergraduate students level, shows that migration in open economies cannot be analyzed in a so simplest way, including in a Ricardian world, with a unique production factor"
In this work we analyze the importance of dynamics in the determination of the distribution of ga... more In this work we analyze the importance of dynamics in the determination of the distribution of gains from free trade and migration. Given a transition dynamic, free trade might worsen a country relatively to autarchy. Moreover, some individuals
might lose welfare during the transition dynamics. In both case, individuals find incentives to migrating, given the lost in the welfare relatively to the autarchy; given the lost in welfare relatively to another country; or, given the intertemporal lost in welfare. Then, inequalities in the distribution of the benefits from free trade matters. Finally, we find out that population size and specialization in production matters in the determination of the distribution of gains from free trade and migration.
The consequences of international migration for development in countries of origin and destinatio... more The consequences of international migration for development in countries of origin and destination remain hotly debated. The immigration flows could be considered an appropriate mechanism to contribute to the development of origin countries if host countries recognize the qualifications of immigrants or contribute to the acquisition of skills. Correspondence analysis is used to determine the relation between education level, job position
and legal situation of immigrants in Spain. The results indicate that immigrants are occupying non skilled tasks, even in the case of well educated immigrants. Furthermore, these immigrants have no options to increase their skills nor by experience (in the job) neither by theirself (attending a school), if the immigration policy only authorizes very short migration. Hence, Spain is not contributing appropriately to the development of origin countries.
Solidarity economics introduces a new economic outlook that emphasises the role of the human bein... more Solidarity economics introduces a new economic outlook that emphasises the role of the human being, ethics and the environment. Since 2009, Ecuador has formally introduced this new concept in the economic policies of the country’s Citizens’ Revolution project. This collection of papers, selected from the 3rd International Congress on Economics, illustrates the pragmatic approach of researchers in Ecuador, and provides answers to the main local problems: corruption, environment, access to new technologies, poverty, income distribution, migration, and labour relations.
Este libro nace para cubrir la necesidad de un material que facilite el debate desde las teorías ... more Este libro nace para cubrir la necesidad de un material que facilite el debate desde las teorías ortodoxas y heterodoxas, revisadas y actualizadas, huyendo de los dogmas y de las recetas fáciles. El eje del libro es el fundamento teórico con soporte matemático. El contrapunto es la inclusión de la política económica en Ecuador. Cada capítulo incluye varias teorías, adaptables a diferentes formas de entender la política. Se hace un especial esfuerzo en que las referencias aporten una visión crítica, actual, y que pongan en tela de juicio las recetas y los dogmas de fe de la economía. El objetivo es convertir el debate político en una prelación de objetivos económicos, donde las ideologías son manifestaciones de gustos y votos.
Journal of International Migration and Integration, 2019
This paper analyzes the relationship between the international immigration rates and the unemploy... more This paper analyzes the relationship between the international immigration rates and the unemployment rate in Spain for the period 1981–2016. During this period, immigration and employment grew rapidly, but in 2008, the Spanish economy collapsed with a significant increase in unemployment. This paper shows that, due to the characteristics of the migration policy in Spain, unemployment and immigration are cointegrated and, in addition, immigration causes unemployment. This causal relationship is positive, in the sense that the greater the immigration, the greater the unemployment. Last but not least, we find a positive long-term relation between immigration flows and GDP per capita growth.
This paper analyses the statistical properties of the threshold model of collective actions. We e... more This paper analyses the statistical properties of the threshold model of collective actions. We establish the conditions of the threshold model under which the sequence of decisions is exchangeable. Then, if the probability of participation is a continuous and strictly increasing function of the willingness to participate, then the unique urn representation of the threshold model is the Pólya urn. In such a case, the sequence of participation rates converges almost surely to a random variable Z that has a beta distribution. Also, we show the critical mass and self-sustaining participation rates are fixed points of the distribution function. Further, we discuss the non-exchangeable model of collective actions, and we define the feedback leadership condition. We apply these results to characterize the process of the adoption of hybrid corn in Iowa, and the diffusion of the Internet for different levels of income.
This article shows that the threshold model appropriately analysed can explain the emigration pro... more This article shows that the threshold model appropriately analysed can explain the emigration process as a consequence of the network features, where the willingness to emigrate depends on the personal and household conditions borne by the emigrant. In such a case, the emigration process can be defined in terms of a Polya schema, and the emigration rate converges almost surely to a random variable with a beta distribution, which fully characterizes the network (assimilation, integration, separation or marginalization). The model is applied to Ecuador, which has experienced an unprecedented wave of emigration since 1998. We show that, despite the massive exodus, the process does not constitute a diaspora, because Ecuadorians do not interact appropriately with natives.
This paper analyses the properties of the Cournot-Ricardo solution if workers have incentives to ... more This paper analyses the properties of the Cournot-Ricardo solution if workers have incentives to move from low to high profit industries. By construction, these movements contribute to the improvement of the competitiveness of countries with free movement of labour, due to the increase in size of industries with a comparative advantage. However, in general, it is not sufficient to guarantee convergence to the Ricardo-Mill solution. In conclusion, under the inter-industry movement of labour, economies are more competitive, but specialisation might not coincide with that predicted by the Ricardo-Mill model.
Under general conditions, it has been proved that free trade improves the welfare of open economi... more Under general conditions, it has been proved that free trade improves the welfare of open economies. However, the conditions to attain the free trade equilibrium are non trivial: when the productive process is planned, industries do not know the price
that will prevail, while the production is not available in the world markets, generating a “general price uncertainty” due to the time–consuming nature of productive process. Consequently, additional assumptions is required to construct the time path driving economies from the autarky to the free trade. Thus, we assume commitment of trade and continuum of goods with the aim of handle with such a problems. This paper finds the general conditions for a smooth time path stable, monotonic and that guarantees a successful process of liberalization.
In the last 40 years, the liberal thinking has been accepted and introduced into economic theory.... more In the last 40 years, the liberal thinking has been accepted and introduced into economic theory. This paper deals with the analysis of the potential incompatibility between liberal thinking and the Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR). We argue that, with minor exceptions, the ICESCR have not been appropiately considered in the economic theory. Consequently, considering economic rights and theory as incompatible subjects is a steril debate. It is compulsory for researchers and policy makers to open a productive discussion, leading to valid solutions in both matters.
Under general conditions, it has been proved that free trade improves the welfare of economies. N... more Under general conditions, it has been proved that free trade improves the welfare of economies. Nevertheless, these conditions are not sufficient to guarantee that exist a path
to drive an economy from autarky to free trade equilibrium. So that, it is not enough to know that economies are better off under free trade, if we do not know how to drive an economy from autarky to free trade. This paper analyzes the dynamic properties of the Ricardo–Mill model under commitment trade. One of the most features of this paper is its emphasis on the role of the information and predictions over the dynamic properties of the model.
DT Departamento Economía Universidad Pública de Navarra, 2006
""Los resultados econométricos muestran que el impacto negativo de las inmigraciones internaciona... more ""Los resultados econométricos muestran que el impacto negativo de las inmigraciones internacionales sobre las economías que las reciben es muy inferior al predicho por las teorías convencionales. En este artículo, explicaremos porqué en economías integradas, con individuos que son consumidores propietarios de factores, el impacto de las inmigraciones sobre la ocupación y el salario de los nativos puede ser inclusive positiva. Mostraremos que los resultados obtenidos por la teoría convencional es un resultado de corto plazo, tal como revelan los resultados empíricos. Asimismo, aprovecharemos para repasar brevemente estas teorías convencionales, al paso que explicamos la importancia de desarrollar las teorías del mercado de trabajo en marcos teóricos caracterizados por economías globalizadas.""
Biltoki DT Departamento Economía Aplicada III Universidad del País Vasco, 2000
El informe sobre las Migraciones de Reemplazo (ONU,2000) sugiere que el envejecimiento de la pobl... more El informe sobre las Migraciones de Reemplazo (ONU,2000) sugiere que el envejecimiento de la población activa de los países ricos puede compensarse mediante la inmigración. Esto contrasta con las políticas restrictivas de la UE en materia de inmigración. Este trabajo muestra que a largo plazo la política de inmigración no ha logrado adecuar la inmigración a la evolución del desempleo. A corto plazo, el modelo VAR muestra que la inmigración en España es parcialmente similar a los países con altas tasas de inmigración, ya que el desempleo no causa la inmigración pero la inmigración causa débilmente el desempleo.
DT Departamento Economía Aplicada IV Universidad del País Vasco, 2002
"In a perfect competitive world, under price equalization and free trade, the international trade... more "In a perfect competitive world, under price equalization and free trade, the international trade theory tends to assure that individuals are better off than in autarchy. Moreover, if wages are the same across countries then there is no incentives for migration. Hence, trade could be a substitutive for migration. Nevertheless, this paper shows that is not true that both countries are better off if labor endowments across countries are very different. Additionally, we show that the equilibria and the welfare of individuals depends on the dynamics of transition from autarchy
to open economy. To proof both assertion, a very standard model is used: preferences and production function are homogeneous of degree one and labor supply is perfectly elastic. Nevertheless, this paper using examples at undergraduate students level, shows that migration in open economies cannot be analyzed in a so simplest way, including in a Ricardian world, with a unique production factor"
In this work we analyze the importance of dynamics in the determination of the distribution of ga... more In this work we analyze the importance of dynamics in the determination of the distribution of gains from free trade and migration. Given a transition dynamic, free trade might worsen a country relatively to autarchy. Moreover, some individuals
might lose welfare during the transition dynamics. In both case, individuals find incentives to migrating, given the lost in the welfare relatively to the autarchy; given the lost in welfare relatively to another country; or, given the intertemporal lost in welfare. Then, inequalities in the distribution of the benefits from free trade matters. Finally, we find out that population size and specialization in production matters in the determination of the distribution of gains from free trade and migration.
The consequences of international migration for development in countries of origin and destinatio... more The consequences of international migration for development in countries of origin and destination remain hotly debated. The immigration flows could be considered an appropriate mechanism to contribute to the development of origin countries if host countries recognize the qualifications of immigrants or contribute to the acquisition of skills. Correspondence analysis is used to determine the relation between education level, job position
and legal situation of immigrants in Spain. The results indicate that immigrants are occupying non skilled tasks, even in the case of well educated immigrants. Furthermore, these immigrants have no options to increase their skills nor by experience (in the job) neither by theirself (attending a school), if the immigration policy only authorizes very short migration. Hence, Spain is not contributing appropriately to the development of origin countries.
Solidarity economics introduces a new economic outlook that emphasises the role of the human bein... more Solidarity economics introduces a new economic outlook that emphasises the role of the human being, ethics and the environment. Since 2009, Ecuador has formally introduced this new concept in the economic policies of the country’s Citizens’ Revolution project. This collection of papers, selected from the 3rd International Congress on Economics, illustrates the pragmatic approach of researchers in Ecuador, and provides answers to the main local problems: corruption, environment, access to new technologies, poverty, income distribution, migration, and labour relations.
Este libro nace para cubrir la necesidad de un material que facilite el debate desde las teorías ... more Este libro nace para cubrir la necesidad de un material que facilite el debate desde las teorías ortodoxas y heterodoxas, revisadas y actualizadas, huyendo de los dogmas y de las recetas fáciles. El eje del libro es el fundamento teórico con soporte matemático. El contrapunto es la inclusión de la política económica en Ecuador. Cada capítulo incluye varias teorías, adaptables a diferentes formas de entender la política. Se hace un especial esfuerzo en que las referencias aporten una visión crítica, actual, y que pongan en tela de juicio las recetas y los dogmas de fe de la economía. El objetivo es convertir el debate político en una prelación de objetivos económicos, donde las ideologías son manifestaciones de gustos y votos.
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that will prevail, while the production is not available in the world markets, generating a “general price uncertainty” due to the time–consuming nature of productive process. Consequently, additional assumptions is required to construct the time path driving economies from the autarky to the free trade. Thus, we assume commitment of trade and continuum of goods with the aim of handle with such a problems. This paper finds the general conditions for a smooth time path stable, monotonic and that guarantees a successful process of liberalization.
to drive an economy from autarky to free trade equilibrium. So that, it is not enough to know that economies are better off under free trade, if we do not know how to drive an economy from autarky to free trade. This paper analyzes the dynamic properties of the Ricardo–Mill model under commitment trade. One of the most features of this paper is its emphasis on the role of the information and predictions over the dynamic properties of the model.
to open economy. To proof both assertion, a very standard model is used: preferences and production function are homogeneous of degree one and labor supply is perfectly elastic. Nevertheless, this paper using examples at undergraduate students level, shows that migration in open economies cannot be analyzed in a so simplest way, including in a Ricardian world, with a unique production factor"
might lose welfare during the transition dynamics. In both case, individuals find incentives to migrating, given the lost in the welfare relatively to the autarchy; given the lost in welfare relatively to another country; or, given the intertemporal lost in welfare. Then, inequalities in the distribution of the benefits from free trade matters. Finally, we find out that population size and specialization in production matters in the determination of the distribution of gains from free trade and migration.
and legal situation of immigrants in Spain. The results indicate that immigrants are occupying non skilled tasks, even in the case of well educated immigrants. Furthermore, these immigrants have no options to increase their skills nor by experience (in the job) neither by theirself (attending a school), if the immigration policy only authorizes very short migration. Hence, Spain is not contributing appropriately to the development of origin countries.
that will prevail, while the production is not available in the world markets, generating a “general price uncertainty” due to the time–consuming nature of productive process. Consequently, additional assumptions is required to construct the time path driving economies from the autarky to the free trade. Thus, we assume commitment of trade and continuum of goods with the aim of handle with such a problems. This paper finds the general conditions for a smooth time path stable, monotonic and that guarantees a successful process of liberalization.
to drive an economy from autarky to free trade equilibrium. So that, it is not enough to know that economies are better off under free trade, if we do not know how to drive an economy from autarky to free trade. This paper analyzes the dynamic properties of the Ricardo–Mill model under commitment trade. One of the most features of this paper is its emphasis on the role of the information and predictions over the dynamic properties of the model.
to open economy. To proof both assertion, a very standard model is used: preferences and production function are homogeneous of degree one and labor supply is perfectly elastic. Nevertheless, this paper using examples at undergraduate students level, shows that migration in open economies cannot be analyzed in a so simplest way, including in a Ricardian world, with a unique production factor"
might lose welfare during the transition dynamics. In both case, individuals find incentives to migrating, given the lost in the welfare relatively to the autarchy; given the lost in welfare relatively to another country; or, given the intertemporal lost in welfare. Then, inequalities in the distribution of the benefits from free trade matters. Finally, we find out that population size and specialization in production matters in the determination of the distribution of gains from free trade and migration.
and legal situation of immigrants in Spain. The results indicate that immigrants are occupying non skilled tasks, even in the case of well educated immigrants. Furthermore, these immigrants have no options to increase their skills nor by experience (in the job) neither by theirself (attending a school), if the immigration policy only authorizes very short migration. Hence, Spain is not contributing appropriately to the development of origin countries.