Estrategias y Recursos III - Lectura y Escritura

INTRODUCCIÓN
Estrategias y Recursos III. Lectura y Escritura –que se cursa en sexto semestre de la Licenciatura en
Educación Secundaria, Especialidad: Lengua Extranjera (Inglés)– se relaciona principalmente con las
asignaturas estudiadas anteriormente: Estrategias y Recursos I. Comprensión de Lectura, y
Estrategias y Recursos II. Comprensión Auditiva y Expresión Oral.
Una queja constante de los profesores a todos los niveles de la educación en México es la mala
redacción de los alumnos, y en esta especialidad, ese problema se presenta tanto en español como
en inglés. Si bien en otras asignaturas impartidas en inglés, especialmente Inglés I, II, III y IV, se
fomenta la expresión escrita integrada a otras habilidades, en este semestre se perfila como
esencial que los futuros profesores de inglés alcancen un buen nivel en la escritura del idioma con
propósitos académicos. Este dominio les permitirá expresarse por escrito en diferentes contextos y
enseñar a sus futuros alumnos de secundaria a redactar en inglés.
Por lo anterior, esta asignatura se enfoca principalmente a la expresión escrita, sin descuidar la
comprensión de lectura, ya que algunos estudios han demostrado que la lectura y la redacción van
de la mano, y se puede decir que entre más leemos, mejor nos expresamos por escrito.
La expresión escrita tiene una gran importancia en la sociedad actual por su carácter permanente en
contraposición a lo efímero del lenguaje hablado. Otras razones importantes para la enseñanza de la
expresión escrita a los estudiantes normalistas son:
• Hace más efectivo el aprendizaje global de una lengua: enriquece el vocabulario, desarrolla el
dominio de la gramática y contribuye al mejoramiento de otras habilidades (lectura, expresión
oral y comprensión auditiva).
• Su práctica permite a los profesores proporcionar un instrumento diferente de expresión a
aquellos estudiantes que no se sienten cómodos expresando sus ideas oralmente; es decir, les
posibilita satisfacer las necesidades y diferencias individuales de sus alumnos.
• El trabajo escrito proporciona a los alumnos resultados tangibles acerca de su avance en la clase
de inglés. Es necesario recalcar que el sentimiento de logro es muy importante para fomentar la
motivación en el estudiante.
• Contribuye a desarrollar la creatividad de los alumnos, ya que escribir es un proceso en el que se
puede tomar tiempo para pensar, ordenar las ideas, escribir y revisar lo que se escribió, de tal
manera que el impacto del escrito sea profundo.
• Proporciona un cambio de actividad muy útil en la dinámica de una clase, un periodo para la
reflexión y la tranquilidad. Asimismo, puede fomentar el contacto con el inglés fuera del aula a
través de tareas para realizar en casa.
• En la enseñanza del inglés, la evaluación de la gramática y del vocabulario se realiza
generalmente a través de la escritura. Por este medio también puede evaluarse la comprensión
auditiva y la lectura, por lo que es necesario que los alumnos aprendan a manejar la escritura.
Tomando en cuenta que en este semestre el nivel de inglés de los estudiantes será más homogéneo,
se pretende que lean textos especializados para la enseñanza de la lengua inglesa, principalmente
sobre metodología. Los ejercicios propuestos en el Anexo pretenden desarrollar un tipo de expresión
escrita que sea paralela a los textos que se lean.
En el Anexo también se presentan ejemplos de actividades sencillas que los futuros profesores
podrán utilizar directamente con sus alumnos de la escuela secundaria. Cabe mencionar que estas
actividades se dirigen principalmente a la expresión libre (free writing), sin que esto excluya la
práctica de escritura controlada o semi-controlada.
El curso Estrategias y Recursos III. Lectura y Escritura continúa con las bases y lineamientos de los
cursos anteriores; es decir, se espera que los estudiantes desarrollen su expresión escrita a un nivel
avanzado como parte de la competencia comunicativa, así como las competencias didácticas que
requieren para enseñarlo a los estudiantes de educación secundaria. En este sentido, los alumnos
normalistas, además de ejercitar ambas habilidades, adquieren las herramientas necesarias para
favorecer su desarrollo.
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PROPÓSITOS GENERALES
A través del curso Estrategias y Recursos III. Lectura y Escritura se espera que los futuros
profesores de educación secundaria:
1. Consoliden su competencia comunicativa en el inglés escrito.

2. Comprendan las diferencias entre el lenguaje hablado y el escrito, así como la naturaleza de la
expresión escrita en inglés.
3. Ejerciten el proceso de la expresión escrita (planeación, escritura de notas, elaboración de un
borrador, revisión y producto final).
4. Analicen algunos de los formatos para la expresión escrita en inglés y sus diferentes
convencionalismos, de acuerdo con el tipo de lenguaje y registro (variedades de la lengua
dependiendo de las circunstancias particulares como: grado de formalidad, participantes,
propósito, lugar, etcétera), especialmente en la escritura académica, para que cuenten con las
herramientas necesarias que los conducirán a la elaboración de su tesis en inglés.
5. Sean conscientes de que durante el proceso de escritura es fundamental tomar en cuenta al
lector (para quién se escribe), así como las razones para escribir.
6. Desarrollen, y pongan en práctica, las competencias didácticas para diseñar diferentes tipos de
actividades de expresión escrita para sus alumnos de educación secundaria, que respondan a su
nivel de inglés y a sus intereses.
7. Se familiaricen con los diferentes tipos de evaluación de la expresión escrita, tales como: la
revisión, corrección y reescritura de las producciones individuales, y la integración de un
expediente personal de los alumnos que permita tener referentes objetivos de sus progresos,
entre otras estrategias; que comprendan la conveniencia de definir el uso de códigos para
marcar cierto tipo de errores y establecer las condiciones necesarias para favorecer
autocorrección y corrección entre los mismos alumnos.
8. Continúen desarrollando la comprensión lectora a niveles avanzados.
Estos propósitos se lograrán a partir de exponer a los alumnos a diversos géneros de textos escritos
que traten, generalmente, sobre la metodología de la enseñanza del inglés.
ORGANIZACIÓN DE LOS CONTENIDOS
Con la finalidad de que los profesores que imparten esta asignatura cuenten con referentes
comunes, a continuación se proponen algunos temas en torno a los cuales pueden seleccionarse las
actividades más adecuadas.
• Metodología de la enseñanza del inglés.

• Descripciones de personas y lugares.
• Narraciones de eventos: vacaciones, viajes, eventos familiares, aventuras, etcétera.
• Temas polémicos: globalización, ecología vs. progreso, tecnología sin límites, etcétera.
Se sugieren estos temas porque se prestan para la expresión escrita, sin embargo, el profesor, de
acuerdo con las necesidades específicas de sus estudiantes y de su contexto, podrá decidir cuáles
son los idóneos.
El curso se plantea alrededor de tres ejes principales:

1. El fortalecimiento de la comprensión lectora.
2. El desarrollo de la expresión escrita de los estudiantes normalistas, especialmente la de tipo
académico.
3. El diseño, organización y aplicación de actividades para los alumnos de educación secundaria.
Hay una gran diversidad de actividades que pueden realizarse en esta asignatura, sin embargo, es
conveniente tener presente que todas deberán propiciar, principalmente, el desarrollo de la
expresión escrita en inglés, y que ésta es un proceso cognitivo, intelectual y comunicativo que
incluye:
• Identificar el formato idóneo (por ejemplo, una carta formal o informal, un mensaje de correo
electrónico, un artículo para una revista) para planear la estructura textual y los
convencionalismos a utilizar según los patrones retóricos.
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• Identificar al lector y el propósito del escrito para pensar en el tono y lenguaje a utilizar (por
ejemplo: amigable, respetuoso, impersonal, persuasivo, sumamente lógico).
• Generar ideas y registrarlas por escrito (a manera de guión, esquema, lluvia de ideas, etcétera)
para facilitar el proceso de la escritura en temas amplios.
• Seleccionar, ordenar y desarrollar los puntos o ideas, para iniciar la planeación estructural del
texto (por ejemplo, decidiendo el contenido de cada párrafo).
• Anotar palabras, frases u oraciones claves que se quieran incluir.
• Escribir un borrador (aquí conviene orientar a los estudiantes con la recomendación general de
escribir en forma directa, sencilla y concisa, evitando las oraciones largas y complejas, con una
oración central en cada párrafo y las otras claramente relacionadas con ella).
• Revisar el escrito, cuidando la coherencia (secuencia de ideas, contenido y estructura de cada
párrafo), la cohesión (uso de conectores y puntuación) y corrigiendo faltas de gramática,
vocabulario y ortografía.
Se recomienda usar textos de extensión variada, desde selecciones hasta artículos especializados
completos, para dar la oportunidad al estudiante de ejercer su capacidad crítica y creativa en cuanto
a la comprensión de lectura y la expresión escrita.
BLOQUE I
EL FORTALECIMIENTO DE LA COMPRENSIÓN DE LA
LECTURA Y SU RELACIÓN CON LA EXPRESIÓN ESCRITA
PROPÓSITO
Desarrollar la comprensión lectora para enriquecer la capacidad de la expresión escrita
1. Reconocimiento de la lectura como elemento fundamental para mejorar la escritura

constantemente
• Lectura de textos especializados en la enseñanza de inglés
• Diversos géneros de textos escritos
- Listas de compras
- Mensajes
- Postales
- Anuncios
- Cartas
- Poemas
- Letras de canciones
- Manuales técnicos
- Informes
- Ensayos
- Artículos periodísticos
- Historias
- Cuentos
- Novelas
2. Aplicación de las principales estrategias de lectura puestas en práctica en cursos anteriores

• Localización de palabras clave
• Identificación de las ideas principales
• Subrayado e investigación de vocabulario nuevo
• Otras
BIBLIOGRAFÍA BÁSICA
• Davies Evelyn and Whitney Norman (1985), Study Skills for Reading, Londres, Heinemann
Educational Books Ltd.
• Dixson Robert J. (1971), Modern Short Stories in English, Nueva York, Regents Publishing
Company, Inc., pp. 89-106.
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• French Allen Virginia (1991), A Reading Spectrum, Washington, English Teaching Division –
Educational and Cultural Affairs – International Communication Agency, pp. 59-65.
• Richards Jack C. (2003), New Interchange, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, pp. 51, 71,
77, 91, 103.
• Richards Jack C. and Sandy Chuck (1998), Passages, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,
pp. 13, 21, 45, 65, 69, 77,105, 109.
• SEP (1994), El libro para el maestro – Inglés – Secundaria, México, SEP.
ACTIVIDADES SUGERIDAS
(Nota: Todas estas actividades y las de los siguientes bloques serán cien por ciento en inglés)
1. Formular las siguientes preguntas para discutirlas en equipo y externar las opiniones, sobre
cada una de éstas, al grupo en general:
• ¿En qué forma ayuda la lectura para mejorar la escritura?

• ¿Por qué y para qué es importante saber escribir correctamente?
• ¿Cuáles son las diferencias entre la expresión escrita y la expresión oral?
• ¿Cómo se logra redactar correctamente?
El maestro supervisa las discusiones de los equipos y los apoya en lo que sea necesario.
Después de los análisis de las preguntas, por parte de los equipos, el maestro modera las
participaciones de éstos y participa con sus propias ideas para construir las mejores
conclusiones.
2. Leer, por parejas, textos de diferentes géneros, para aplicar las principales estrategias de lectura
e identificar, subrayando, the topic sentence, development, and conclusion, de cada uno los
párrafos. Al terminar la actividad cada pareja lee al grupo lo que identificó de los tres aspectos
en estudio para hacer comparaciones con el resto de la clase.
• Se recomienda trabajar con la página 179 del material de apoyo.
• El maestro modera las participaciones y al final de éstas proporciona el resultado correcto
que haya sido aportado por los mismos alumnos.
3. Analizar y comentar en equipo cuáles son los principales problemas para comprender las lecturas
en forma eficiente y completa. Enseguida se debe redactar un párrafo exponiendo cuáles son los
problemas y sugerir soluciones para éstos, incluyendo una conclusión breve.
• El maestro ayuda a los equipos en lo que necesiten para la elaboración del párrafo.
• Al terminar, los equipos leen su trabajo al grupo mientras que el profesor escribe en el
pizarrón las soluciones que se proponen y marca las ideas cada vez que se repitan para
elaborar una conclusión general.
4. Leer individualmente un artículo para localizar las palabras clave y enseguida compararlas en
equipo de cuatro alumnos para analizar las que resultaron más comunes e importantes. Se
recomienda leer City Scenes (p. 172 del material de apoyo).
• El maestro pide que cada equipo mencione cinco de las palabras clave que se localizaron y
las escribe en el pizarrón para compararlas y comentar por qué son consideradas
importantes en el texto.
5. Leer individualmente Things You Can Do to Help the Environment (p. 175 del material de apoyo)
para subrayar las palabras desconocidas e intentar, por parejas, adivinar su significado.
• El maestro solicita que los alumnos escriban en el pizarrón las palabras que no conocen y
pide a la clase participar con opiniones sobre los significados de éstas. Asimismo facilita los
significados de las palabras que no haya encontrado la clase.
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BLOQUE II
EL DESARROLLO Y PERFECCIONAMIENTO DE LA EXPRESIÓN ESCRITA
PROPÓSITO
Conocer el proceso de la expresión escrita de tipo académico para lograr una comunicación eficiente
en diferentes contextos
1. Comprensión de los pasos del proceso de la expresión escrita

• Prewriting
- Especificación del trabajo
- Planeación
- Bosquejo
- Recolección de datos
- Elaboración de notas
• Composing
- Primera escritura
• Revising
- Reorganización
- Cambio de énfasis
- Enfoque de la información
- Registro
• Editing
- Revisión de gramática
- Vocabulario
- Puntuación
- Ortografía
2. Análisis de los tipos de escritos según la información que contienen

• Descripción
• Definición
• Ejemplificación
• Clasificación
• Comparación y contraste
• Causa y efecto
• Generalización y calificación
• Interpretación de datos
• Polémica
• Desarrollo de conclusiones
• Jordan R. R. (1980), Academic Writing Course, Londres, Collins ELT.

77, 91, 103.
pp. 13, 21, 45, 65, 69, 77,105, 109.
• Robinson Lois (1967), Guided Writing and Free Writing, E.U.A. Harper and Row, Publishers, Inc.
• Scott, Foresman (1989), English for a Changing World 5, Workbook, Glenview, Illinois, Scott,
Foresman and Company, p. 21.
• Scott, Foresman (1989), English for a Changing World 6, Glenview, Illinois, Scott, Foresman
and Company, p. 122.
• Tribble Christopher (1996), Writing, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
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1. Leer y analizar en equipo un texto modelo del tipo académico (p. 183 del material de apoyo)
para identificar las principales partes que lo componen y posteriormente escribir individualmente
uno que contenga el mismo formato y convencionalismos, pero con un tema diferente.
El profesor pide a un alumno que lea el párrafo y solicita al grupo que le indiquen al alumno
lector que se detenga al finalizar the topic sentence, que continúe leyendo y de la misma forma
haga un alto al encontrar the development y finalmente the conclusion, para que de esta forma
quede clara la localización de los tres aspectos en estudio a todo el grupo.
Los párrafos escritos individualmente se entregan al maestro para ser revisados y corregidos en
lo que deba mejorarse.
2. Escribir individualmente un dictado de un texto modelo (p. 185 del material de apoyo) y al
terminarlo comparar los escritos en equipo y corregir la ortografía.
El maestro solicita a un alumno que escriba el mismo texto en el pizarrón y pide al grupo hacer
correcciones, si se requiere, para luego identificar entre toda la clase los siguientes aspectos:
• Formato (carta, mensaje, artículo ensayo, etc)
• Tipo de lector
• Propósito del escrito
• Tono
El profesor modera las participaciones de los alumnos y contribuye con su opinión personal
cuando ya lo haya hecho la clase para llegar a las repuestas correctas.
3. Escribir en equipo textos mencionados en el número uno del bloque uno, en clases diferentes y
siguiendo el proceso de tipo académico para practicar la expresión escrita y mejorarla en cada
trabajo siguiente. Por ejemplo: postales
Se reúnen los equipos para escribir una postal (ficticia) utilizando los tiempos presente, pasado y
futuro para luego escribirlas en el pizarrón y hacer las correcciones que se requieran con la
participación de grupo en general.
El maestro supervisa el trabajo de cada equipo y apoya en lo que se necesite cuando se escriban
las postales en el pizarrón. Después de ser revisadas todas las postales cada alumno escribirá
una para ser analizada y corregida por el maestro.
4. Escribir grupalmente en el pizarrón un description paragraph de acuerdo con las instrucciones de

la página 169 del material de poyo, para analizar los aspectos que debe contener este tipo de
escrito y para prepararse a escribir uno cada alumno.
El maestro modera las participaciones de los alumnos y las escribe en el pizarrón, preguntando
al mismo tiempo a la clase si hay algo que deba corregirse; hace los cambios de palabras que
considere pertinentes y entre alumnos y maestro estructuran el párrafo de descripción que
servirá de ejemplo para escribir uno cada estudiante. Finalmente el profesor recoge cada trabajo
para revisar y corregir lo que sea necesario.
BLOQUE III
EL DISEÑO DE ACTIVIDADES DE EXPRESIÓN ESCRITA
PARA ALUMNOS DE EDUCACIÓN SECUNDARIA
PROPÓSITO
Reforzar el conocimiento de actividades de expresión escrita dirigidas a la práctica docente
1. Diseño y aplicación de actividades atractivas para alumnos de secundaria

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• Intercambio de escritos
- Cartas
- Experiencias personales
a) Problemas familiares o de trabajo
b) Pequeñas o grandes mentiras
c) Satisfacciones
d) Momentos inolvidables
- Aventuras
- Viajes
2. Selección de temas de interés para los estudiantes
• Vacaciones
• Deportes
• Música
• Películas
• Aventuras
• Temas polémicos
- Globalización
- Ecología vs. progreso
- Guerras
- Emigración
- Otros
• Davies Evelyn and Whitney Norman (1985), Study Skills for Reading, Londres, Heinemann
Educational Books Ltd.
• Dixson Robert J. (1971), Modern Short Stories in English, Nueva York, Regents Publishing
Company, Inc., pp. 89-106.
• French Allen Virginia (1991), A Reading Spectrum, Washington, English Teaching Division –
Educational and Cultural Affairs – International Communication Agency, pp. 59-65.
• Grellet Francoise,(1981), Developing Reading Skills, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
• Jordan R. R. (1980), Academic Writing Course, Londres, Collins ELT.
77, 91, 103.
pp. 13, 21, 45, 65, 69, 77,105, 109.
• Robinson Lois (1967), Guided Writing and Free Writing, E.U.A. Harper and Row, Publishers, Inc.
• Scott, Foresman (1989), English for a Changing World 5, Workbook, Glenview, Illinois, Scott,
Foresman and Company, p. 21.
• Scott, Foresman (1989), English for a Changing World 6, Glenview, Illinois, Scott, Foresman
and Company, p. 122.
• Tribble Christopher (1996), Writing, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
1. Escribir en forma individual un enunciado en el que se mencione un recuerdo inolvidable y real

para practicar la escritura personal. Sin escribir los nombres de los alumnos en los escritos, se
recogen y se reparten al azar entre el grupo y se leen para toda la clase, permitiéndoseles
mencionar cuál fue el que escribieron si así lo desean.
El profesor pregunta a la clase si se comprendió cada enunciado y pide participaciones para

corregirlos y mejorarlos si es el caso. Asimismo aporta su opinión para cada uno de los escritos,
en cuanto a la gramática, claridad, ortografía, etc.
Esta actividad se puede llevar a cabo con los demás elementos del número uno del bloque tres y
en forma de párrafos con diferentes temas de interés para los estudiantes.
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2. Elaborar una carta inventada a un personaje famoso (estrella de cine, deportista, cantante, etc.)
entre varios alumnos simultáneamente para practicar la escritura. Se les pide a los alumnos
participantes (10) que expresen en una frase o enunciado lo que desean decirle al personaje
acordado y lo escriban en el pizarrón ante la atención del resto del grupo. Al final de la
participación de los diez alumnos, con la colaboración de toda la clase, se revisa y se corrige lo
escrito, con la finalidad de mejorarlo en los aspectos que se necesiten.
El maestro examina cada una de las frases o enunciados escritos en el pizarrón y pide a la clase
que participe haciendo posibles correcciones; después da su opinión acerca de lo que se pueda
mejorar.
3. Redactar en equipos, para practicar la escritura, un informe sobre una misma película que hayan
visto mencionando de qué trató; qué les gustó o qué no les gustó; y si la consideran una película
mala, buena o excelente. Se sugiere leer a la clase en general los informes de cada equipo y se
pide que la clase opine de cuál película se habla en cada escrito para analizar si está claro lo que
se quiso decir.
El maestro modera las participaciones de la clase, apoya a los alumnos cuando necesiten ayuda
para expresar algo y colabora con su opinión.
4. Conformar equipos para presentar al grupo una estrategia que favorezca la expresión escrita en
los alumnos de secundaria, exponiéndola al grupo y solicitando opiniones para mejorarla y
perfeccionarla de acuerdo a los temas de interés de los estudiantes.
El maestro organiza el orden de la participación de los equipos y de los demás alumnos que
cooperan con sus opiniones para mejor la estrategia. Todo el grupo debe tomar nota de las
estrategias propuestas para su posible utilización en las clases de inglés de secundaria.
ORIENTACIONES DIDÁCTICAS
Es importante recordar que uno de los principales objetivos de la licenciatura es favorecer que los
estudiantes utilicen el inglés como otro medio de comunicación, finalidad que supera la tendencia a
estudiar para aprobar exámenes centrados exclusivamente en la gramática. En el caso de la
expresión escrita, es necesario que el texto mismo comunique hechos e ideas de manera clara y
efectiva; por lo tanto, el profesor de esta asignatura deberá mantener la comunicación como un
elemento central de sus clases. En el apartado “Organización de contenidos” se sugirieron temas
sobre los cuales se puede hablar y escribir.
Como se podrá constatar, el propósito de los ejemplos de actividades que contiene esta guía, es
ayudar a los estudiantes normalistas a escribir mejor, para lo que se sugieren técnicas que consisten
en relacionar la lectura con la escritura y viceversa. La primera relación (lectura-escritura) ayuda a
los a los estudiantes a producir su propio texto, pero similar a un texto modelo, siguiendo los
convencionalismos apropiados, entre otras cosas. La segunda relación (escritura-lectura) los ayuda
a ser conscientes del efecto que sus escritos tengan sobre un lector (comprensión completa y clara,
comprensión parcial, malentendidos, confusión total, etcétera).
1. Diversificación de las formas de trabajo
Para trabajar la comprensión de lectura las actividades pueden ser las mismas, o algunas similares,
a las que se proponen en la guía Estrategias y Recursos I: Comprensión de Lectura, pero a un nivel
más avanzado y con textos más extensos. En cuanto a la expresión escrita, se recomiendan las
siguientes actividades:
• Descubrimiento de formato y convencionalismos de un texto modelo del tipo que después se va

a escribir.
• Dictado de un texto modelo, que puede ser de un párrafo.
• Lluvia de ideas y/o discusión sobre el tema a desarrollar.
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• Toma de notas sobre las ideas que se quieren expresar.
• Organización de las notas: reconocimiento de las ideas principales y secundarias del tema a
desarrollar.
• Práctica sobre expresiones útiles, conectores, puntuación, etcétera.
• Revisión de un texto con fallas: de coherencia, de cohesión, lingüísticas o de puntuación.
• Escritura creativa; se puede hacer en grupos o parejas, no sólo en forma individual.
• Desarrollo de un pequeño proyecto, individual o en grupos (como una revista o boletín escolar
en inglés).
Estas actividades pueden modificarse de acuerdo con las necesidades particulares de cada grupo y/o
estudiante. Como ya se mencionó, es de suma importancia tomar en cuenta las diferencias
individuales, los estilos de aprendizaje y los intereses de los alumnos.
Es fundamental recordar que en este nivel los estudiantes ya deberán contar con los recursos
necesarios para expresarse efectivamente en inglés. Se ayudará a los alumnos que tengan
dificultades en el dominio del idioma y se incentivará a los que muestren un nivel más avanzado.
Asimismo, es necesario que el profesor fomente el gusto por la lectura y la escritura, de modo que
éstas sean actividades placenteras para que el estudiante logre un nivel de autonomía y finalmente
él mismo lea y escriba por gusto.
Es importante que el maestro no sea el único lector y “comentarista” del trabajo escrito de los
estudiantes. Es necesario fomentar la relación escritura-lectura o escritor-lector también entre los
estudiantes. Algunas tareas se prestan para esto, por ejemplo, el intercambio de cartas de tipo
personal o simulando situaciones como la solicitud de una beca y su posible respuesta. Además, los
alumnos pueden intercambiar trabajos escritos y comentarlos entre ellos; por ejemplo, los que se
escribieron en grupos o parejas tal vez sea posible someterlos a una especie de concurso: se pegan
en el pizarrón o la pared con un número de identificación, con el fin de que todos los compañeros los
lean y luego voten para decidir cuál es el mejor; de esta manera también sabrán cuál es el segundo,
tercero o cuarto lugar. Después sería conveniente platicar en grupo de los méritos de los dos o tres
mejores trabajos
2. Planeación y análisis de las sesiones de práctica en la escuela secundaria
Como ya se mencionó, la asignatura Estrategias y Recursos III. Lectura y Escritura gira alrededor de
la competencia comunicativa y de la competencia didáctica del alumno. Por esta razón, es
importante que, además de la bibliografía sugerida al final de esta guía, se consulten materiales
como el Libro para el maestro. Inglés. Educación Secundaria, libros de texto para secundaria u otros
documentos que permitan a los estudiantes normalistas considerar las necesidades e intereses de
los adolescentes al momento de preparar y organizar la práctica docente que realizarán en las
jornadas de observación y práctica en las escuelas secundarias.
Los estudiantes prepararán de manera autónoma las actividades de práctica, aunque previamente a
las jornadas se destinará un tiempo de clase para tratar cuestiones relacionadas con algunos
problemas específicos que encuentren al planificar. Asimismo, en sesiones posteriores a las
actividades realizadas en la escuela secundaria, se analizarán las estrategias utilizadas, con el fin de
identificar dificultades y aciertos y explicar por qué se lograron o no los propósitos previstos.
En el curso Observación y Práctica Docente IV analizarán la experiencia en su conjunto.
EVALUACIÓN
Se recomienda evaluar a los alumnos de dos maneras:

• En forma continua a partir de los escritos realizados durante el semestre.
• Por medio de un ensayo o proyecto de una extensión aproximada de 1 000 palabras, donde el
estudiante desarrolle un tema específico relacionado con la enseñanza del inglés y demuestre las
habilidades adquiridas en el curso.
9
En cuanto a la evaluación de la capacidad del estudiante para trabajar con los adolescentes el
desarrollo de estas habilidades, se propone que el futuro maestro diseñe, seleccione y adapte
actividades de lectura y redacción para cada uno de los grados de secundaria y posteriormente se
analicen en el grupo para promover la coevaluación.
Es recomendable que al inicio del semestre el maestro acuerde con los estudiantes la forma precisa
de la evaluación y los criterios que se aplicarán. En el caso de que se requiera un examen final, éste
se deberá diseñar tomando en cuenta las actividades que se realizaron durante el curso.
ANEXO
Sample activity 1. Writing contrasting concepts
a) How do (would) you teach grammar? Discuss with a partner.

b) Read the following text.
Deductive vs. inductive language learning
Deductive reasoning applies a general rule to particular instances while inductive reasoning involves
inference from the particular to the general. Language learning is most clearly deductive when a
teacher gives an explicit statement of the rule, which the students then apply to examples. The term
“inductive” most obviously applies when a child learns its first language by inducing the rules from
exposure to the language in use. A deductive approach is most closely associated with the
grammar-translation method of teaching languages, while an inductive approach is considered
characteristic of audiolingualism, where meaning and grammar were not explicitly explained but
induced from carefully graded exposure to and practice with examples in situations and substitution
tables.
In the grammar-translation method, the focus on rules was conscious and explicit. In
audiolingualism, learning of the rules could be either conscious or unconscious (depending on what
the learner was thinking about) but they were not explicitly formulated. In between these two
approaches, there is a range of techniques, commonly called “discovery” or “guided discovery”
techniques, in which explicit focus is combined with inference from examples. These techniques vary
according to whether explanation of the rules takes place before or after practice and according to
the degree of guidance the students are given in working out the rules.
Frequently, in the presentation stage, the teacher establishes a context or situation and elicits
appropriate language, asking concept questions to check understanding of form, meaning, and use.
Or he or she might put two contrasting items on the board and elicit the difference in meaning
between them. The procedure is direct and teacher-fronted, but by eliciting the rule rather than
telling the rule to the students, the teacher introduces an element of discovery learning, albeit
heavily guided. At other times the students may work more independently of the teacher in pairs or
groups, engaged in a problem-solving approach to new language. They might be asked to find all
the different ways of referring to the future in a text, or to work out the differences in form and
meaning between sets of contrasting sentences. After “discovering” a rule for themselves in this
way, they can be asked to formulate it for the class.
Such procedures, though involving inference from examples, have been labelled “modified
deductive” because there is explicit formulation of the rule before practice. Where the rule is
explicitly formulated, either by the teacher or the students, after the students have been guided to
work it out through practice, the label “modified inductive” has been used to distinguish this from a
purely inductive approach in which the rule is left implicit. The common denominator with this range
of techniques is the fact that the students are actively engaged mentally, which is not only
motivating but is believed to lead to more thorough learning.
From one lesson to another, and throughout the same lesson, a teacher may switch approach.
Feedback on errors, for example, could take the form of either telling the student the rule or guiding
him to work it out himself. Students are likely to understand and remember better what they have
worked out for themselves; on the other hand, when time is short or it is difficult for the students to
10
work out the rule themselves, a deductive approach may be more appropriate.
(From J. Gollin (1998), “Deductive vs. inductive language learning”, in ELT Journal, vol. 52/1.)
c) Note the steps followed in the text.
• In the first paragraph: How does the author begin the text? How does the author show the
contrast between “deductive” vs. “inductive” reasoning?
• What does the author do in the second, third and fourth paragraphs?
• What is the main characteristic of the last paragraph?
d) Write a similar explanation of two contrasting key concepts in ELT. Here are some ideas:
• Communicative vs. non-communicative activities.
• Accuracy vs. fluency.
• Teaching vs. testing.
• Learning vs. acquisition.
Sample activity 2. Writing a general-specific text
a) Read the description of a certain kind of text used in English, then discuss this question with a
partner: Is it the same in Spanish?
General-specific (G-S) texts.
This kind of texts usually begin with:
• a definition, short or extended, or
• a contrastive or comparative definition, or
• a generalization or purpose statement.
G-S texts move from broad statements to narrower ones. However, they often widen out again in
the final sentence. The shape is similar to that of a glass or cup:
A general statement
Specific detail
More
detail
A broad statement
b) Now read the following G-S text:
Writing
Writing is a complex sociocognitive process involving the construction of recorded messages on
paper or on some other material, and, more recently, on a computer screen. The skills needed to
write range from making the appropriate graphic marks, through utilizing the resources of the
chosen language, to anticipating the reactions of the intended readers. The first skill area involves
acquiring a writing system, which may be alphabetic (as in European languages) or nonalphabetic
(as in many Asian languages). The second skill area requires selecting the appropriate grammar and
vocabulary to form acceptable sentences and then arranging them in paragraphs. Third, writing
involves thinking about the purpose of the text to be composed and about its possible effects on the
intended readership. One important aspect of this last feature is the choice of a suitable style.
Because of these characteristics, writing is not an innate natural ability like speaking but has to be
acquired through years of training or schooling.
c) The “shape” of this passage is something like this. Complete the diagram.
1) __________________________________________________
2) Main skills involved
3) Skill area 1
4) ___________
5) Skill area 3
6) _________________
7) __________________________________________________
d) Now in pairs, write a G-S text about one of the following:
• Communicative Language Teaching.
• Task-based Learning.
• Consciousness-raising activities.
• Motivation in ELT.
Note that a definition has a typical structure:
11
term class specific detail
(A) _______ is (a) ___________________ wh-word _____________________
A task is a piece of classroom work which
involves learners in
comprehending, mani-pulating,
producing or interacting in the
target language while their
attention is principally focused
on meaning rather than form.
(Adapted from Swales, J. y C. Feak (1994), Academic writing for graduate students, University o
Michigan Press.)
Sample activity 3. Writing an abstract
a) In groups of three, discuss the following questions:

What is an abstract?
What is the purpose of an abstract?
b) Read the following abstract and discuss the questions after it
Peer evaluation: “I am not the teacher”
This article is based on an exploratory investigation of a secondary school writing class in Hong
Kong. Through examination of the way learners in this study viewed the roles of the teacher and
learner as “readers” of the compositions they had written, it explores the extent to which the
broader educational context and its belief system shaped six ESL students’ perception of peer
evaluation. Finally, the article questions whether notions of collaborative construction of knowledge
in the classroom are viable options within an examination-driven, accuracy-oriented L2 curriculum
which may preclude learners (and teachers) from re-conceptualizing their traditional roles.
(From S. Sengupta (1998), “Peer evaluation: ‘I am not the teacher”’,in ELT Journal, vol. 52/1.)
What kind of information can we get from an abstract?
How is the above abstract structured?
c) Look at a couple of abstracts in TOEFL journals like Tesol Quarterly or ELT Journal.
d) Read an article, cover the abstract and as a group, write one for the article you have read. When
you have finished, read the abstract the author of the article has written and compare it with yours.
Sample activity 4. Using questions to write a narrative (possible in Secondary School)
a) Get into groups of according to the number of questions to be asked, e.g. seven people for seven
questions.
b) Take a blank sheet of paper. You are going to write a story. Look at the guiding questions on the
board:
What time was it?
Who was the person?
Where was s/he?
What was s/he doing?
What did s/he say?
What did s/he do after that?
What happened in the end?
c) Each student in your group answers one question in turn. When the first student has answered
his/her question, s/he folds the paper over so that the next student cannot see what s/he has
written, and so on. When all the questions have been answered, the students unfold the sheet of
paper and read their story. For example:
It was 10 o’clock at night. It was 9 o’clock in the morning.
My neighbor Joaquín. My classmate Lupita.
Was at home. Was at the disco.
He was watching TV. She was studying for her math exam.
He said, “I have to kill that spider”. She said, “I love you”.
He opened the door. She closed her eyes.
12
He saw a black cat. She discovered a dead body.
The stories can yield funny results and motivate students. This activity can also be used at all levels.
(Adapted from D. Byrne (1991), Teaching writing skills, Longman.)
Sample activity 5. Writing an e-friend e-mail (possible in Secondary School)
a) In groups of three discuss if you have cyber friends. Do you chat with them? What do you chat
about? Do you write e-mails to each other?
b) Now read the following e-mail sent to you by a Swedish student.
To: tperez19@yahoo.com
From: shanson21@hotmail.com
Hi,
I’m a Swedish Biology student who would like to make Mexican friends. I’m 21 and live in
Stockholm. The place where I live is beautiful, there are many lakes around. I love the city. But I
don’t like the weather, it can get very cold in winter. I’m interested in tropical plants, especially
palm trees and would like to visit Mexico sometime.
I have some good friends at university and a lot of cyber friends from all over the world. I have a
sister who lives with my parents in Lund, South Sweden. If you’d like to be my friend, please write
to me and tell me all about you. I found your e-mail address on the ICQ. Bye,
Sven
c) Individually answer Sven’s e-mail.
Note: This activity can be done for real if there are computers available for students.
13
14
MATERIAL
DE
APOYO
15
16
CONTEXT UNITS
FUNCTIONAL WRITING CONTEXTS
Postcards sometimes necessary to make your

meaning clear.
You may write postcards for many different • End in any way you like. Formal endings
purposes, for example: are not necessary. Usually your name is
• To tell someone about your holiday or trip. enough.
• To let someone know travel details.
• To tell someone your new address or Advertisements
telephone number.
• To send news about friends or family. Advertisements are used when someone
• To ask for news of friends or family. wants to:
• To send a greeting (e.g. for a birthday or • Buy something
New Year). • Sell something
• To remind someone to write to you. • Hire someone
• To let someone know you are thinking of • Find a job
them. • Publicize a business
• Publicize an event
Keep these points in mind when writing • Give information to the public
postcards: • Ask for information from the public
• Because postcards are informal and
personal, you may begin and end in any Keep these points in mind when writing
way you like. advertisements:
• Choose your first word carefully for a
• Because there is not much space you
classified advertisement. The reader will
usually:
use the first word to find what they want.
o Mention just a few things
It is usually the name of the item or
o Use shortened sentence forms.
service being advertised.
• You do not have to follow strict rules of
• Keep classified advertisements short to
punctuation. For example, you may use
reduce the cost. Shortened sentences and
dashes (-) instead of full stops or commas
abbreviations can help.
to separate ideas.
• Make your advertisements for a window or
notice-board stand out. (Use, for example,
Notes and messages
underlining or big print)
• Draft and revise carefully, even if you
We usually write notes to or receive notes
send a classified advertisement by phone.
from any of the following people:
• friends
Personal letters
• family
• trades people
Personal letters usually have one or more of
• people who work with you
the following purposes:
• people who share your house
• To thank
• teachers
• To send greetings or express your feelings
• landlords or rental agents
about some occasion or event.
• the public
• To apologize
• others
• To invite
• To make arrangements
When writing notes or messages:
• To make or renew contact with someone
• Write every time and day/date if it is
• To give news
important
• To request news
• Emphasize the important words by using:
• To accompany enclosed material (photos,
o Capital letters
gifts, etc.)
o Underlining or other marking
• To reply to another letter.
o Punctuation
• Leave out unnecessary words if you wish.
Important point to keep in mind:
Full sentences are not necessary especially
• Write your address and the date in the top
in notes to friends and family members.
right-hand corner. This is often done
• Use dashes (-) instead of full stops,
informally, and sometimes the address is
commas and even question marks if you
not necessary at all.
wish. However, question marks are
17
• Begin your letter with a greeting of some the top left-hand corner (lower than your
kind. ‘Dear…’ is by far the most common. address). You will not always know the
• Use the first paragraph to set the scene name or the position. Use what you know.
and to state the main purpose of your • Use:
letter (if there is one). If replying to a • The person’s surname (Dear Mrs Smith) if
letter, say thank you for it here. your know it. Only use the first name if
• Organize the rest of your letter into you know him or her very well.
paragraphs. In general, you should begin • “Dear Sir” if you are writing to a man and
a new paragraph every time your change don’t know his name.
topics but this may not be necessary in a • “Dear Madam” if you are writing to a
shorter letter. woman and don’t know her name.
• Don’t worry too much about punctuation • “Dear Sir/Madam” or “Dear Sir or Madam”
rules. if you don’t know the name or the sex.
o You can often use a dash (-) instead of You can also use the person’s position
a full stop or a comma or even a (Dear Councillor/Resident/Manager/etc.).
question mark. • Write your address in the top right-hand
o Your can use exclamation marks, corner
capital letters and underlining to add • Write the date under your address.
emphasis. • You can write a short statement to
o You can use brackets to separate introduce the main point of your letter.
anything extra to the main thoughts. (‘Re’ means ‘about’.) This is not always
• Use the last paragraph to send good necessary.
wishes, say goodbyes, mention future • Begin with a sentence which explains the
meetings and so on. It is common to begin purpose of the letter. (You should do this
this paragraph with a reason for ending even if you write a statement as
the letter (time to go to bed, to the post mentioned before). If you are writing in
office, etc.) reply, mention the date of the letter
• Finish your letter with a farewell message received and any reference code.
of some kind. Common endings are: • Then write any extra information. Keep to
love the point. Only mention what is necessary.
all my love If the letter is very short you could put
love and kisses everything in one paragraph. If it is longer
bye for now and includes several points, you will need
see you soon more than one paragraph.
best wishes • End with a sentence like ‘Thanking your
regards for your assistance’.
• Add anything your have forgotten to say • Follow these rules for ending:
as a postscripts (PS). You sometimes see • Use “Your faithfully” where your have used
more than one postscript to a letter (PPS, “Dear Sir” or “Dear Madam”.
PPPS, and so on). • Use “Yours sincerely” where your have
used the person’s name (“Dear Mrs
Formal letters Smith”). “Yours sincerely” is, however,
seen more and more in both cases.
We write or receive formal letters from:
Local councils Job applications
Banks
Insurance companies When you apply for a job you may have to:
Landlords or rental agencies • Write a letter of application
Gas or electricity bodies • Fill in an application form
Government departments • Write a résumé of yours background and
Education bodies experience. (A résumé is also called a
Solicitors Curriculum Vitae)
Travel or holiday companies
Others Your application may be used to decide if you
get an interview for a job. So it is very
When writing a formal letters: important to give the right impression.
• Write the name, the position and the
address of the person you are writing to in
18
When writing job application letters to
accompany a résumé:
• Mention the position you are applying for
and where you learnt of the vacancy.
• Expand on some pints about your
background or experience, showing how
they are relevant to this job. Do not
repeat all the information on your resume
or application form.
• Emphasize your interest in and suitability
for the job. If possible, show you have
some knowledge of what the company
does.
• Mention that you have attached a copy of
your resume or a completed application
form.
• State that you are willing to attend an
interview.
• Set your letter out clearly. Follow closely
the layout and punctuation of formal
letters. If possible, have your letter typed.
If not, make sure it is very neatly written.
• Keep a copy of the letter and
advertisement.
Stories
The stories you write may be about events

from your own life, or from your imagination.
Your may choose to write them for yourself,
for friends and family to read, or for wider
publication, for example in a school magazine.
(If possible, organize such a school
magazine.)
Here is a useful plan to follow to make your

stories interesting to read. Include:
• An orientation or introduction. Here the
writer explains who the story is about (the
main character or characters) and perhaps
where the story takes place (the setting).
• A complication or middle part. Here the
main events of the story unfold and some
problem or crisis occurs.
• A resolution or conclusion. Here the
problem or crisis is resolved.
Adapted from Brown Kristine and Susan Hood.

Writing Matters, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, 1997
19
PART 1: CORE UNITS
THE WRITING PROCESS
1. Preparing to write
INTRODUCTION Introduction
The next three units are very important. They Most writing requires some preparation. How
describe the three main stages of the writing long you sped on this preparation, and what
process. For ease of discussion, we present you do, largely depends on your reader, your
these three stages like this: purpose, the content and the writing situation.
For example, a quick message to a friend
requires different preparation from a letter to
a company applying for a job. The ideas below
will be useful to you in preparing to write.
Remember: Keep all the writing you do in

But in practice the process is often more like these exercises for use in the next two units.
this:
IDEAS
BRAINSTORMING
This means you ‘storm’ or search your brain

for ideas.
• Write them down very quickly. Then don’t
have to be in English.
• Don’t worry about how useful they will be.
• Don’t worry about neatness and
correctness.
e.g. Brainstorming in preparation for a job

application letter:
The writing process depends on:
• who you are writing to or for (reader)
• why you are writing (purpose)
• What you are writing about (content)
• Where you are, how much time your have,
how you feel, etc. (situation).
There is no one way to write. The ideas in the

next three units are only suggestions. Try
them all. Some you may find useful in one
type of writing. Some you may find useful
every time you write.
Whatever you do, you will benefit from lots of Exercise 1

practice. So write often – even if it’s only for a
short time and even if it’s only for yourself. Choose an item that interests you from those
below. You are going to write something
Many of the exercises which follow continue about it for a student magazine (a letter to
through the three units, so keep in your editor, an article, a story). Prepare by
writing until the end of Unit 3, revising. brainstorming.
(Keep the notes you make for use in exercise

j, Unit 2, Drafting.)
20
e.g. Speed writing in preparation for a letter
SPEED WRITING to a teacher about a child’s problems at
school:
This is a warm-up activity to get your writing
freely.
• Give yourself a time limit (say two
minutes).
• Write as much as your possibly can on a
topic.
• Write whatever comes into your head. It
doesn’t matter if it doesn’t all make sense.
• Keep writing until the time is up.
• Don’t worry about neatness and
correctness.
21
Exercise 2
Choose from one of the following topics and
write a letter to the editor of your class
magazine.
work
children
television
Prepare by doing two minutes speed writing.
(Keep your writing for exercise 4, Unit 2,
Drafting.)
ASKING YOURSELF ‘WH’ QUESTIONS

Exercise 4
This idea is useful for longer pieces of writing. Below are some notes a writer made in
• -Write down some questions about the preparing to write a letter of complaint to the
topic. council about the lack of playgrounds in the
• who…? what…? where…? when…? why…? area. Rewrite the notes in the order you would
how…? mention them.
Thing of as many questions as you can.

e.g. ‘Wh’ questions in preparation for a letter
to the Council about the bad condition of the
roads:
Exercise 5
Use some of the notes you made in one of the
previous exercises (brainstorming, speed
Exercise 3 writing, ‘wh’ questions). Use numbers or
Imagine you are planning to move to another arrows to put the notes in the order you want
city. You need to have accommodation to mention them.
arranged before you move. Prepare a letter to
send to some real estate agents in your new USING MODELS
city, telling them what you are looking for.
Make up a list of ‘wh’ questions to remind Models or examples can help you with what to
yourself of what you need to mention in your write and how to write it.
letter. • Look for models of the kind of writing you
want to do.
e.g. ‘When do I need the accommodation?’ • Keep a file of these so you will have them
(Keep your questions for exercise 3, Unit2, when you need them.
Drafting.) • Think about the content (the information
included, the questions asked, the ideas
GETTING YOUR IDEAS INTO ORDER mentioned).
• Look closely at the language used.
This is something you could do after Underline or make notes of any useful
brainstorming, speed writing, or ‘wh’ expressions.
questions. • Look closely at the organization of ideas.
• Look through your notes. • The model on the left was useful in writing
• Use numbers or arrows to put them in the the advertisement on the right.
order you want to mention them in
writing.
e.g. Ordering notes in preparation for a job

application letter:
22
• Reread that letter or advertisement.
• Underline parts that you want to mention
in reply.
• Keep the letter or advertisement handy
when you are writing as a reminder of
things to mention.
e.g.
Salesperson
We are seeking a mature person with
experience in sales. Some experience with
Exercise 6
selling power tools would be and advantage,
Imagine you want to sell a refrigerator. Look
and applicants should hold a current driver’s
carefully at the advertisements below.
licence and be available for some weekend
• Take note of any useful words or
work. Salary is negotiable. A company Vehicle
abbreviations.
will be proved. Applications Should be directed
• Discuss with other students the kind of
in writing to:
information included, and the order in
which it is mentioned.
Mr Alf Singer
Personnel Manager
ANDERSON and LEECH POWER
TOOLS PTY LTD
P.O. Box 635
Port Adelaide 5015
Exercise 8
Van received this letter from some friends
overseas. Note the parts he might mention in
reply.
Exercise 7
Read the following letter to the editor
carefully.
• Write down the three phrases that are
used to introduce and to link the writer’s
three arguments against the death
penalty.
• Write down any other useful words or
expressions.
Additional exercises
Exercise 9
Think of someone you would like to write to,
someone you haven’t written to for a long
time.
• Quickly jot down as many things as you
can think of that have happened to you
over the last 6 months.
• Group together those events that seem to
MARKING POINTS TO MENTION IN REPLY belong together.
• Decode which you will mention first and a
If you are replying to a letter or rough order for the rest of your news.
advertisement:
23
(Keep your notes for exercise 5, Unit 2,
Drafting.)
Exercise 10
Choose one of the ideas described in this unit
to prepare for the following:
a) A note to someone who is minding your

house, telling them where everything is.
b) A letter to your landlady asking for some
repairs to be done.
c) An advertisement to sell some furniture
you no longer want.
d) A story about your childhood.
(Keep your notes for exercise 6, Unit 2,

Drafting.)
Exercise 11
Think of something you personally need to
write at the moment. Prepare for your writing
in one of the ways suggested in this unit.
(Keep your notes for exercise 7, Unite 2,
Drafting.)
24
W R I T E R S INC.
others work more on paper. Some writers

“Writing to me is a voyage, an odyssey, a need to talk about their writing early on,
discovery, because I’m never certain of while others would rather keep their ideas
precisely what I will find.” to themselves. Your own writing
- Gabriel Fielding personality will develop as you become
more and more experienced.
Understanding the Process
INSIDE. All of guidelines and strategies
The basic steps in the writing process included in this section won’t necessarily make
discussed in your handbook cover different you a better writer. Real improvement comes
aspects of mind travelling. Prewriting helps from writing regularly, experimenting with a
you select and shape a subject for writing. number of different forms, and addressing a
Writing the First Draft helps you connect all number of different audiences.
of your thoughts about your subject. It is your
first complete look at a developing piece of
writing. Revising helps you make changes in The process in Action
your writing until it says what you want it to
say. Editing and Proofreading help you The next two pages provide a basic look at the
check your revised writing for correctness and writing process in action. Use this information
prepare it for publication. Publishing helps as a general guide whenever you write.
you evaluate the effectiveness of your work.
Sharing a finished piece of writing with your Prewriting
classmates is one form of publishing; 1. Find an interesting idea to write about-one
submitting your work to a school newspaper that meets the requirements of the
or magazine is another. assignment and lends itself to worthwhile
mind travelling.
Setting the Stage 2. Begin your subject search with free
writing, clustering, or another selecting
Before you use this section, it’s important that activity. (See 017-018)
you understand four main points about the 3. Learn as much as you can about a
writing process. potential subject. (See 021-022.)
• Experience shapes writing. Each of 4. Take a close look at your prewriting
life’s experiences becomes part of what progress to see whether or not you have a
you know, what you think, and what you solid interest in your subject. If one
have to say. Your mind is a storehouse for subject leads to a dead end, drop it and
these past experiences, as well as a search for another one.
creative processor for your thoughts of 5. Once you have a topic, find an interesting
today and tomorrow. Writing is the way (a focus) to write about it. (See 024-
process of capturing those thoughts and 025.)
experiences on paper. 6. Think about an overall plan or design for
• Writing never follows a straight path. organizing your writing. This plan can be
Writing is a backward as well as a forward anything from a brief list to a detailed
activity, so don’t expect to move neatly outline. (See 026.)
and efficiently through the steps in the
writing process. Mind travelling by its very Writing the first Draft
nature includes detours, wrong turns, and 1. Write the first draft while your prewriting
repeat visits. is still fresh in your mind.
• Each assignment presents unique 2. Give your opening paragraph special
challenges. For one composition, you attention to set the right tone for your
might search high and low for an writing. (See 030.)
interesting subject. For another 3. Refer to your plan or outline (if you have
composition, you might do a lot of one) for the main part of your writing, but
collecting and reviewing before you find an be flexible. A more interesting route may
interesting way to write about a subject. unfold as you write.
For still another, you might be ready to 4. Keep writing until you come to a natural
write your first draft almost immediately. stopping point. Don’t worry about
• Each writer works differently. Some corrections at this point. Concentrate on
writers work more in their heads, while developing your ideas.
25
5. Remember that your first draft is your first follow the necessary requirements for
look at a developing writing idea. (You submitting manuscripts. (See 058.)
may find it necessary to write more than
one draft of an emerging writing idea.) Writing Basic Essays
Revising The essay is the basic form of writing assigned

1. Review your first draft to make sure you in all academic areas. You write essays about
understand which parts work and which important concepts covered in your reading
parts need to be changed. and class discussions. You research related
2. Add, cut, reword, or rearrange the ideas in topics. You compose produce (how-to) papers.
your writing. Your writing should answer You take essay tests. Anytime you are asked
many of the questions your readers may to inform, explain, analyze, or write
have about your subject. (See 036.) persuasively about a subject, you are
3. Check your writing for opportunities you developing an essay. Basic essays usually
may have missed to make it as meaningful contain at least three to fire paragraphs.
and lively as possible. (See 039.)
4. Review (or write) the opening and closing Building a Knowledge Base
paragraphs. They should help tie Begin the essay-writing process by selecting a
everything together in your paper. subject that genuinely interests you (and
5. Refine the style of your writing. Your ideas meets he requirements of your assignment).
should sound interesting, colourful, and Then learn as much as you can about this
natural. (See 041.) subject by collecting a wide variety of facts
6. Ask your classmates to react to your and details.
writing. (See 042.48.)
Once you have a good knowledge base, you’re
Editing and Proofreading ready to develop your essay. Are you
1. Reread your final draft aloud to test it for expected to inform your readers about your
sense and sound. Replace any words, subject? Fine. Then present your findings as
phrases, or sentences that are awkward or clearly and completely as you can. Are you
confusing. expected to persuade your readers to accept
2. Then check for errors in usage, your position on a subject? In that case,
punctuation, capitalization, spelling, and support your point of view using the facts and
grammar. figures you have gathered. The key in either
3. Have a dictionary, thesaurus, and your situation is to work with solid information.
Writers INC handbook close at hand as Always remember that effective essays begin
you work. and end with information.
4. Ask a reliable editor –a fried, classmate,
teacher, or parent- to check your writing What’s ahead?
for errors you may have missed. The first part of this chapter discusses the
5. Prepare (write, type, or keyboard) a neat main elements in the development of an
final copy of your writing. Follow the essay: structure, organization, and support.
guidelines for a final draft established by On the pages that follow, you will find writing
your teacher. guidelines and a model for a basic expository
6. Proofread the final draft for errors before essay and for a persuasive essay. Also
submitting it for publication. included in this chapter are two interesting
extras: a graphic organizer for planning (124)
Publishing and tips for personalizing an essay (128-129).
1. Share your finished product with your Note Refer to “academic Writing” (354-370)
writing group and teacher. (Have copies of for more guidelines and models.
your work available for group members.)
2. Listen carefully to their reactions to your The Importance of Structure
work. Take brief notes so you can refer to The basic essay has a tight structure; that is,
their comments the next time you write. it contains an opening paragraph, several
3. Decide if you are going to include the developmental paragraphs, and a closing
writing in your portfolio. Follow the paragraph.
guidelines established by your teacher.
4. Consider submitting your work to a school,
local, or national publication. Make sure to
26
Beginning Ending
Your opening paragraph should accomplish The closing or summary paragraph should tie
two things: It should gain your reader’s all of the important points in the essay
interest in your subject, and it should identify together and draw a final conclusion for the
the focus or thesis that you will develop in the reader. It should leave the reader with a clear
main part of your essay. Remember that the understanding of the essay topic.
focus identifies the specific part of your
subject that you will write about. (See 024- The Importance of Organization
025 for more about your focus or thesis
statement.) The Topic Outline
A topic outline is a listing of the topics to be
There are several ways to draw your reader’s covered in a piece of writing; it contains no
attention to your subject. Five effective specific details. Topics are stated in words and
techniques are listed here. phrases rather than complete sentences. This
• Open with a series of questions about the makes the topic outline useful for short
topic. essays. It is always a good idea to begin your
• Provide an interesting story or anecdote outlining task by placing your thesis
about the subject. statement, or controlling idea, at the top of
• Present a startling or unusual fact or your paper. This will serve as a reminder of
figure. the specific topic you are going to be outlining
• Quote a well-known person or literary and later writing about. Use the standard
work. format shown in the example for labelling the
• Define an important, subject-related term. lines of your outline. Do not attempt to outline
your opening or closing paragraph unless
Middle specifically told to do so.
The developmental paragraphs are at the Introduction
heart of the essay. They must clearly and I. Paper recycling big business
logically support your thesis. If for instance, A. Industry involved
you are going to present information about B. Recyclable paper plentiful
paper recycling, each developmental C. Countries buy wastepaper
paragraph in your essay should discuss an II. Simple process
important element related to that subject. A. Collect and sort paper
B. Form a pulp
It’s important that these paragraphs are C. Dry pulp to make paper
arranged in the best possible way – D. New paper used in many
chronologically, by order of importance, or by ways
an order of your own making. (See 112 for- III. Some papers not recyclable
methods of arrangement.) It’s also important A. Glossy, envelopes, glued
that your paragraphs flow smoothly from one papers
to the next. To achieve this flow, make sure B. Must be sorted out
that the first sentence in each new paragraph C. New process coming for
serves as an effective link to the preceding glossy paper
paragraph. Transitions like in addition, on the Conclusion
other hand, and as a result are often used for
this purpose. (See 115.) The Sentence Outline
The sentence outline not only contains the
Take note major points to be covered but lists
Start a new paragraph whenever there is a supporting details as well. It is used for
shift or change in the essay. This change is longer, more formal writing assignments;
called a paragraph shift and can take place for each point should, therefore, be written as a
any of four basic reasons: complete sentence.
1. a change in emphasis or ideas
2. a change in time Introduction
3. a change in speakers I. Paper recycling is a booming business
4. a change in place or setting today.
A. Industry believes recycling paper
makes good sense.
27
B. A large supply of recyclable paper is Dr. M. Jones recently reported, “The high
thrown away by Americans. stress of athletic training and conditioning in
C. Taiwan actually buys paper waste from youngsters can damage their bone structure.”
the U.S.
Using Examples
II. Paper recycling is a simple process. Examples will strengthen your writing by
D. Paper is collected and sorted. making it more concrete. In the model
E. Paper is mixed with water and expository essay in this chapter, the writer
chemicals to form pulp. states, “Paper recycling has truly become part
F. Pulp is dried and new paper is formed. of the daily lives of many Americans.” Here
G. The new paper is used for a Wide are two of the examples the writer uses to
range of products. prove his statement is true:
1. Recyclable paper is collected at home
III. Some types of paper cannot be recycled (curbside) and at the office.
presently. 2. Americans recycled 20 millions tons of
A. Equipment cannot handle glossy paper last year.
paper, envelopes, glued papers, etc.
B. These types must be sorted out. Guidelines for writing an Expository
C. A new technology is being perfected Essay
that will make glossy papers
recyclable. Informing Your Readers
D. Conclusion
Discussion: Write an expository essay
The importance of support presenting information about a subject of
personal interest. Your goal will be to share
Believe it or not, writing is a privilege. But facts, explaining them as necessary, and
with this privilege comes the responsibility of guiding your reader to a clear understanding
supporting and developing your main points of your subject. Gather facts by referring to at
with facts, quotations, and examples. Without least two different sources-books or
this kind of evidence, your readers will not periodicals. Do your best to prepare an essay
take your writing seriously. Here’s how it’s that reads smoothly from the opening
done. paragraph to the closing thought. Refer to the
model essay that follows and the guidelines
Using facts below to help you with your writing.
In the model persuasive essay in this chapter,
the writer asks if metal detectors are the Searching and selecting
answer to student safety. He makes this 1. Searching. Think of a subject you would
statement: “The answer to this question for like to know more about. Consider
Somerset High School is, I believe, ‘no’.” Here subjects related to your course work, as
are two supporting facts he presents to get well as interests outside of school. Page
the reader to accept his opinion: through textbooks on newspapers, or
1. The only weapons found so far at SHS brainstorm for ideas with other
have been knives. classmates. Make a list of possible
2. We’ve had very few weapon-related subjects.
expulsions compared to other area 2. Selecting. Look over your list and focus
campuses. your attention on interesting subjects that
you know you can find plenty of facts
Using Quotations about-either in a textbook, reference
A quotation from an expert can go a long way book, or magazine. Now choose your
toward lending support. For example, in a favorite.
essay about sports and children, a writer
made this claim: “Competitive sports can be Generating the Text
harmful for preschoolers.” Later, he shared 3. Collecting. Find at least two good sources
this supporting quotation to help convince the of information and begin reading. List
reader: important facts as you come across them.
(Don’t worry about their order at this
point.) To be certain you understand the
28
information you’re collecting, use your Paper recycling has indeed become a big deal,
own words as much as possible. and a big business. Today, industry recycles
4. Planning. Review your facts looking for a paper not just because it makes good
main idea or impression that could serve business sense. Since Americans throw away
as the focus or thesis of your essay. Once more paper than anything else, there is much
you identify a possible focus, write it out to be gained by recycling paper. For example,
in a sentence. Next, put a check mark by Fort Howard Corporation of Green Bay,
the facts and details that support this Wisconsin, produces bathroom tissue made
idea. Then plan and organize your writing entirely of recycled paper. The company
accordingly. You may find it helpful at this recycles enough paper each year to cover 100
point to prepare an outline. (See 118.) acres 18 feet deep (Grove 104). Foreign
countries are even buying our paper waste. If
Writing and Revising you see a MADE IN TAIWAN tag on a
5. Writing. Develop your first draft manufactured paper product, in another life it
according to your planning and organizing. was probably a newspaper in America. Taiwan
Devote extra time to your opening buys all of its paper from the United States.
paragraph, which should catch your
reader’s attention and identify the focus of The process of paper recycling is a simple
your writing. one. First, paper is collected and sorted.
6. Revising. Carefully review your first draft, Recyclable paper includes typing paper,
making sure that the main idea you had newspaper, cardboard boxes, scrap paper,
intended to share has, in fact, been clearly index cards, and computer printouts. This
put forth. Also make sure that you have recyclable paper includes typing paper,
effectively supported this idea and that newspaper, cardboard boxes, scrap paper,
your writing flows smoothly. (See topic index cards, and computer printouts. This
128 for more ideas.) recyclable paper is dumped into a vat of water
and chemicals. A large spinning blade mixes
Evaluating the paper to a pulp. This pulp is dried on
Is the essay well organized? screens, and the new paper is formed on
Do the facts effectively support the cylinders. Items made from this new recycled
focus? paper include newspapers, cereal and shoe
Will readers appreciate the treatment of this boxes, toilet tissue, paper towels, building
subject? insulation, egg cartons, and even livestock
bedding.
Expository Essay
Not all types of paper can be recycled,
The purpose of an expository essay is to however. Recycling equipment at this time
present important information about a specific cannot handle envelopes, carbon paper,
subject. In the follow example, student writer glossy paper, photographs, or paper with
Todd Michaels shares timely information about scotch tape, glue, or staples attached. These
paper recycling. You will notice that his essay types of paper must be sorted out.
follows the traditional five-paragraph pattern Advancements are being made, though, to
(opening paragraph, three developmental accommodate these items. Recycling
paragraphs, and closing paragraph). equipment currently is being perfected that
will remove ink from glossy magazine and
Paper Recycling catalog paper, enabling it to be recycled.
From large paper chutes at the office to home
curbside collection, paper recycling has Although landfills are still filling up with over
become an everyday thing. Americans have two-thirds of our recyclable waste, paper
changed their throwaway attitude for a recycling has become a success story. While
recycling consciousness, and they are only 18 percent of metal cans and 2 percent
recycling in record numbers. Last year 20 of plastics are recycled, 40 percent of
million tons of paper were recycled a recyclable paper is, in fact, recycled. Five
substantial increase from the previous year. thousand community programs exist
Paper recycling has truly become part of the nationwide for the recycling of paper products,
daily lives of many Americans. and big business has discovered the
advantages of a product-material that can be
reused up to eight times. Recycling fever
29
hasn’t been as high in the United States since Clear essays Problem/Solution
World War II, when people in a wartime Essays-Summaries-
situation felt it was their duty to recycle. Develops organizing skills Essays of
Perhaps people today have realized that the Argumentation-
world is in a different kind of emergency Paragraphs/Essays
situation, and that, world is in a different kind BUSINESS WRITING
of emergency situation, and that, again, it is Questioning & Answering Letters of
their duty to recycle. Inquiry-Résumés-Memos-
Writing to get a job done Letters of
A Survey of Writing Forms Application-Messages-
Builds real-world writing Follow-Up
The chart that follows classifies the different Letters-Writing Instructions
forms of writing in one of six ways. (See 277-
397 for guidelines and models.) Experiment Writing about a Person
with all forms of writing, moving freely Whenever possible, write about someone you
between “categories”. An essay, for example, know-or would like to know. Follow the steps
can (and should) be creative as well as in the writing process, using the suggested
informative. prewriting techniques to gather as much
PERSONAL WRITING information and as many specific details as
Remembering & Sharing Journals- you can. The suggestions that follow will help
Reminiscences-Logs-Diaries- you think about your tropic on a variety of
Exploring, free flowing Personal Essays levels.
and Narratives-Listing- 1. Observe. Begin gathering details by
Promotes writing fluency Free Writing- observing the person you are describing;
Clustering-Brainstorming notice in particular those details of
SUBJECT WRITING personality and character that set your
Searching & Reporting Descriptions- subject apart from other people.
Profiles-Case Studies- 2. Investigate. Talk to your subject (in
Investigating Firsthand Experiences- person, by phone, or by letter). Have
Summary Reports- some specific questions ready ahead of
Broadens writing Eyewitness Accounts- time, but be prepared to add or follow up
Observation Reports as you go along. What are your subject’s
Experiences Personal Research Reports – goals, dreams, attitudes, concerns, pet
Interviews peeves, hobbies …? Quote your subject
CREATIVE WRITING directly whenever possible (use a tape
recorder). Read about your subject if she
Inventing & Imitating Poems-Myths-Plays-
or he is well known and not available for
Stories-
an interview.
Reshaping Ideas Anecdotes-
3. Define. Determine what type of person it
Songs-Ads-Jokes-
is you are describing (child/adult,
Encourages creativity Parodies-Character
student/professional, shy/mischievous,
Sketches
friend/stranger) and how he or she is like
REFLECTIVE WRITING other people of the same type.
Reflecting & Speculating Essays of 4. Describe. List the important physical
Illustration-Dialogues of Ideas- characteristics, mannerisms, and
Searching for meaning Essays of personality traits, especially those that
Explanation-Essays of Reflection- make your subject unique or worth
In experiences Position Papers-Personal reading about. (Remember: Show, don’t
Commentaries- tell. Include people and action in your
Reinforces complex Responses to writing and let them “show” the reader
Literature-Editorials- what your subject is like.)
Thinking Essays of Opposing 5. Recall. Add details (anecdotes and
Ideas-Pet Peeves stories) recounting things your subject has
ACADEMIC WRITING said and done in the past. Try to recall at
Informing & Analyzing Essays of least one specific incident that reveals the
Information-Essays to Compare- kind of person your subject really is.
Shaping Information Into Essays of 6. Analyze. Ask others about your subject
Definition-Cause/Effect Essays and notice how they react to your
30
questions. Their reactions can tell you Learning style: some students are
(and your reader) about the kind of person fantastically quick at picking up language just
your subject truly is. What are his or her by looking and listening. For the rest of us, it
strengths and weaknesses? How does he may take a little longer. For many learners,
or she influence others? the time to think things through, to produce
7. Evaluate. Determine why this person is language in a slower way, is invaluable.
important to you, to others, to the Writing is appropriate for such learners. It can
community. also be a quiet reflective activity instead of
the rush and bother of interpersonal face-to-
Possible topics face communication.
I know a special person, a person who . . .
is clever/funny is a living legend Writing as a skill: by far the most important
is stubborn is always happy reason for teaching writing, of course, is that
is helpful/kind is a perfectionist it is a basic language skill, just as important
is very talented is a complainer as speaking, listening and reading. Students
is phony is very patriotic need to know how to write letters, how to put
is a little weird is afraid of nothing written reports together, how to reply to
is always talking is always around advertisements – and increasingly, how to
is always in trouble write using electronic media. They need to
know some of writing’s special conventions
(punctuation, paragraph construction etc.)
HOW TO TEACH ENGLISH just as they need to know how to pronounce
spoken English appropriately. Part of our job
• Why teach writing? is to give then that skill.
• What kind of writing should students do?
• What do writing sequences look like? What kind of writing should students do?
• How should teachers correct writing? Like many other aspects of English language
• What can be done about handwriting? teaching, the type of writing we get students
• How does writing fit into ESA? to do will depend on their age, interests and
• More writing suggestions level. We can get beginners to write simple
poems, but we probably won’t give them an
Why teach writing? extended report on town planning to do.
The reasons for teaching writing to students of When we set tasks for elementary students,
English as a foreign language include we will make sure that the students have – or
reinforcement, language development, can get – enough language to complete the
learning style and, most importantly, writing task. Such students can write a simple story
as a skill in its own right. We will look at each but they are not equipped to create a complex
of these in turn. narrative. It’s all a question of what language
the students have at their command and what
Reinforcement: some students acquire can be achieved with this language. As we
languages in a purely oral/aural way, but shall see with the four examples in this
most of us benefit greatly from seeing the chapter, the models we give students to
language written down. The visual imitate will be chosen according to their
demonstration of language construction is abilities.
invaluable for both our understanding of how
it all fits together and as an aid to committing In general, however, we will try to get
the new language to memory. Students often students writing in a number of common
find it useful to write sentences using new everyday styles. These will include writing
language shortly after they have studied it. postcards, letters of various kinds, filling in
forms such as job applications, writing
Language development: we can’t be sure, narrative compositions, reports, newspaper
but is seems that the actual process of writing and magazine articles, etc. We may also want
(rather like the process of speaking) helps us to have students write such text types as
to learn as we go along. The mental activity dialogues, playscripts, advertisements, or
we have to go through in order to construct poems – if we think these will motivate them.
proper written texts is all part of the ongoing Another factor which can determine our choice
learning experience. of writing task is the students’ interests. If
everyone in the class works in a bank, we
31
might choose to get them writing bank simple (‘we get up late every day …’),
reports. If they are all travel agents, your can verbless sentences, postcard style (‘after
imagine getting them to write alluring lunch – siesta!’) and present continuous for
advertisements for special deals. But, of future (‘Tomorrow we’re going …’).
course, this should not preclude using other
types of creative writing with such groups. The students then discuss the fact that, in
postcards, greeting (like ‘Dear Judy’) are not
When we have a mucho more mixed group – necessary. Signings –off are informal (‘Love
students, secretaries, doctors, teachers and Mary’). Now that students have examined the
police officers, for example – their interests structure of the postcard, the teacher asks
won’t be so easy to pin down. At this point we them to imagine that they too are on holiday.
will choose writing tasks which we think are They must decide where. She tells them that
generally useful but which, more importantly, they, too, must send a postcard to an English-
they are likely to enjoy doing. Students may speaking friend. Like the example postcard,
never have a need to write a scene from a they should say where they are, what they do
soap opera, for example, but they might enjoy every day, what they’re doing tomorrow/next
having a go, so it is worth doing. week etc., and they should sign off informally.
There is no limit to the kinds of text we can When the student have completed to task, the
ask students to write. Our decisions, though, teacher can collect the postcards and correct
will be based on how much language the them later (see below) or the students can
students know, what their interests are and read them out, or they can show their cards
what we think will not only be useful for them to other people.
but also motivate them as well.
This postcard activity is an example of
What do writing sequences look like? ‘parallel writing’ – where students stick closely
The four examples of writing we are going to to a model they have been given, and where
look at show a range of level and complexity. the model guides their own efforts. It is
especially useful for the kind of formulaic
Example 1: postcards (elementary) writing represented by postcards, certain
In this example at the elementary level, kinds of letters, announcements and
students s invitations, for example.
Study a particular type of writing and then
write something which is very similar in Example 2: altering dictations
design and structure to what they have just (intermediate)
been looking at. In this activity, the teacher dictates
statements which students have to alter to
The teacher starts by having students look at suit their own preferences and priorities. It is
this postcard. a writing activity which is especially useful
during a lesson sequence which is designed to
ask people to take positions on a certain
subject – and can therefore be used as a
prelude to a discussion, or a controversial
reading, for example.
The teacher tells students she is going to

dictate a number of sentences. However, the
students should change the sentences as she
dictates them so that they reflect their own
points of view. In other words, the sentence
they write down will be an amended form of
the sentence the teacher starts with. As an
example the teacher reads this sentence.
The teacher checks that the students
Human beings do not treat animals well.
understand the information in the card and
And tells students to re-write the sentence to
then she asks hem to identify four different
suit their own feelings. She may read this
patterns in it: the present continuous (‘we’re
original sentence more than once and she
staying at a lovely hotel …’), the present
32
then gives students time to complete their for headlines (e.g. ‘slams’ for ‘complains
sentences. Here are examples of what about’, ‘quits’ instead of ‘leaves’).
students might write: • Students are then asked to choose one of
the following topics: a disaster, a
Some people thing that human beings do not neighbourhood quarrel, a
treat animals well, but I do not think this is resignation/sudden departure of a public
very important. figure, a sports triumph, a scandal
involving a public figure (actor, politician
Human beings must treat animals better etc.). In pairs, they have to thing of a
because they are living creatures too. short story to go with the topic they have
chosen.
The teacher then reads out more sentences, • The pairs now write the headlines for their
giving students adequate time to alter them, stories and write them up on the board for
e.g. the rest of the class – who have to guess
what the story is about. The teacher can
The way people treat animals tells you what suggest changes, corrections and
kind of people they are. amendments to the headlines during this
There is no difference between killing animals stage of the lesson.
for food and killing people in war. • The students then write articles to go with
If all the world was vegetarian, we’d all be a the headlines. While they are doing this,
lot happier. the teacher goes round the class offering
them help when and if they need it.
The students them compare what they have • The teacher can stick the articles up on
written in pairs or groups before reading them the class noticeboard or, if this is not
out to the class. The teacher only corrects possible, have students read their stories
where there are glaring errors. Alternatively, out to the rest of the class.
pairs and groups could be asked to pool their • Newspaper writing can be used in a
sentences and come up with a new one which number of different ways. In this example,
represents a fair compromise between the for instance, when pairs have made up a
various points of view. headline they can give it to another pair
who has to use it to invent a story of their
The finished sentences either then lead into a own. Or perhaps all the headlines could be
reading or listening text about vegetarianism detached from their newspaper articles so
– or they may form the start of a discussion that a new matching exercise could take
activity (see Chapter 9). place.
Example 3: newspaper headlines/article Example 4: report writing (advanced)

(intermediate) In this example for an upper intermediate or
advanced level class, the writing task forms
In this sequence, the teacher introduces part of a much longer project-like sequence.
students to the way newspaper headlines are The teacher is going to get students to write a
constructed and then gets students to write report about leisure activities.
their own newspaper articles. The sequence
starts when the teacher asks the students if The teacher introduces the topic and asks
they read newspapers, and what they read students to give her any words they associate
about. They have a short discussion. The with leisure activities. She writes them on the
teacher then gets students to match board and adds any of her own that shi thinks
newspaper headlines with the stories they the students need.
came from, as in the following example.
She then asks students to design a
1. Match the newspaper headlines with the questionnaire which will find out how people
stories they came from. spend their leisure time (see pages 89-90 for
• The teacher now elicits the facts that, for the use of questionnaires as speaking
example, headlines frequently use the activities). When they discuss how they are
present simple tense and invariably leave going to write the report. This is where the
out articles and auxiliaries. She might teacher will introduce some of the features of
point out that there is special vocabulary report writing that are necessary for the task,
e.g. ‘in order to find out how people spend
33
their leisure time we …’ or ‘One surprising fact mistake is because it is unclear what the
to emerge was that …’ and ‘The results of our student is trying to say. Common sense and
survey suggest that …’ etc. As with many talking to students about it are the only
examples of writing style, the teacher can solutions here. The other really important
suggest ways in which the text should be point is that correction is worthless if students
constructed (what comes in the introduction. just put their corrected writing away and
Middle paragraphs and conclusion) and offer never look at it again. Teachers have to
language which the writing style uses (as in ensure that they understand the problem and
our report-writing example above). then redraft the passage correctly.
The students now draft their reports which the What can be done about handwriting?
teacher collects to correct. When she hands Handwriting is a very personal matter. It is
them back, the students write them up in final supposed to reflect character. Different
form and show them to their colleagues to see nationalities certainly have recognisable
if they all said more or less the same thing. handwriting traits. Some people have easily
readable writing. Some produce written work
How should teachers correct writing? which is indecipherable, whether beautiful or
Most students find it very dispiriting if they messy and ugly.
get a piece of written work back and it is
covered in red ink, underlinings and crossings- Many nationalities do not use the same kind of
out. It is a powerful visual statement of the script as English, so for students from those
fact that their written English is terrible. cultures writing in English is doubly difficult:
they are fighting their expressive limitations
Of course, some pieces of written work are as well as trying to work out a completely new
completely full of mistakes, but even in these writing system at the same time. And now
cases, over-correction can have a very that word processors are becoming more and
demotivating effect. As with all types of more common, people have less motivation
correction, the teacher has to achieve a for good handwriting.
balance between being accurate and truthful
on the one hand and treating students Teachers are not in a position to ask students
sensitively and sympathetically on the other. to change their handwriting style, but they
can insist on neatness and legibility. Especially
One way of avoiding the ‘over-correction- when students are heading towards and
problem is for teachers to tell their students exam, such things are crucial. With students
that for a particular piece of work they are who are having problems with English script,
only going to correct mistakes of punctuation, special classes or group sessions may have to
or spelling, or grammar etc. This has two be arranged to help them. In these classes
advantages: it makes students concentrate on they can be shown many examples of certain
that particular aspect, and it cuts down on the letters, and the teacher can demonstrate the
correction. strokes necessary for making those shapes –
and where the letter starts (writing from left
Another technique which many teachers use is to right is difficult for some students).
to agree on a list of written symbols (S =
spelling, WO = word other, etc). When they They can be asked to write ‘in the air’ to give
come across a mistake they underline it them confidence or they can be asked to
discreetly and write the symbol in the margin. imitate letters on lined paper which
This makes correction look less damaging. demonstrates the position and height of
letters, e.g.
However many mistakes you may want to
identify, it is always worth writing a comment
at the end of a piece of written work –
anything from ‘Well done’ to ‘This is a good
story, but you must look again at your use of
past tenses – see X grammar book page 00’.
Two last points: correcting is important, but it

can be time-consuming and frustrating,
especially when it is difficult to know what the
34
How does writing fit into ESA? 9. Students write invitations of various kinds.
The four writing examples in this approach the (elementary/intermediate)
ESA procedure from a number of different
angles. In the case of the postcard the Conclusions
teacher may first talk to students about In this chapter we have:
postcards and/or holiday in such a way as to • Looked at the reasons for teaching
Engage them. They then Study the postcard writing: reinforcement of learnt language,
looking for typical ‘postcard features’ and the development of the students’ language
finally they Activate that knowledge by writing through the activity of writing, the
their own version. appropriacy of the activity of writing for
some styles of learning and the
In the ‘altering dictations’ activity, the importance of writing as a skill in its own
students are, hopefully, Engaged by the right.
dictation and topic of the sentence they write • Said that what students write will depend
down. When they alter the sentence they are on level and the motivational effect of the
Activating the knowledge of English which task. In general, students should practise
they have. After the discussion (Activate) writing postcards, letters, forms,
which this will provoke, the teacher will give narratives, reports and articles – as well
feedback on the language used, making as (perhaps) more frivolous tasks.
corrections where appropriate (Study). • Studied four writing sequences.
• Tackled the difficult subject of correcting
A different kind of boomerang procedure is writing, suggesting that over-correction
evident in the newspaper writing activity. should be avoided and that teachers
Students are first Engaged with the topic of should always strive to be encouraging.
newspapers before doing the matching task • Pointed out that, while handwriting is a
(Activate). They then Study headlines before matter of style, teachers should expect
going on to a creative writing stage (Activate). students to write clearly and legibly, in
some cases, students may need special
In report writing, a number of stages are gone help in the shaping of letters, for example.
through, giving the whole sequence a
patchwork feel. Students need to be Engaged Looking ahead
with the topic, they need to Study the • The next two chapters are about the
language which they will need, knowledge spoken word. They mirror many of the
which is Activated in the collection of results comments made about reading and
before students come back to study the writing.
structure of reports in order to produce a final • After that comes Chapter 11 on textbook
piece of work (Activation). use, a vital teacher skill, and then Chapter
12 on lesson planning.
More writing suggestions
1. Students write letters to a newspaper in
response to a controversial article.
(intermediate/advanced)
2. Students expand a variety of headlines
into newspaper articles
3. Students write/design their own menus.
(beginner/lower/intermediate)
4. Students design posters for a
party/play/concert etc.
(beginner/lower/intermediate)
5. Students write a radio news bulletin.
(elementary/intermediate)
6. Students write a letter of application for a
job. (any level)
7. Students write the description of a room
while listening to music. (intermediate)
8. Students send e-mail messages (real or
simulated) to other English speakers
around the world. (any level)
35
CHAPTER 17
TEACHING WRITING SKILLS
certain standards of prescribed English

How is writing like swimming? Give up? rhetorical style, (b) reflect accurate grammar,
Answer: The psycholinguist Eric Lenneberg and (c) be organized in conformity with what
(1967) once noted, in a discussion of “species the audience would consider to be
specific” human behaviour that human beings conventional. A good dead of attention was
universally learn to walk and to talk but that placed on “model” compositions that students
swimming and writing are culturally specific, would emulate and on how well a student’s
learned behaviours. We learn to swim if there final product measured up against a list of
is a body of water available and usually only if criteria that included content, organization,
someone teaches us. We learn to write if we vocabulary use, grammatical use, and
are members of a literate society and usually mechanical considerations such as spelling
only if someone teaches us. and punctuation.
Just as there are non-swimmers, poor There is nothing inherently wrong with
swimmers, and excellent swimmers, so it is attention to any of the above criteria. They
for writers. Why isn’t everyone an excellent are still the concern of writing teachers. But in
writer? What is it about writing that blocks so due course of time, we became better attuned
many people, even in their own native to the advantage given to learners when they
language? Why don’t people learn to write were seen as creators of language, when they
“naturally”, as they learn to talk? How can we were allowed to focus on content and
best teach second language learners of message, and when their own individual
English how to write? What should we be intrinsic motives were put at the center of
trying to teach? Let’s look at these and many learning. We began to develop what is now
other related questions as we tackle the last termed the process approach to writing
of the “four skills”. instruction. Process approaches do most of
the following (adapted from Shih, 1986):
Research on Second Language Writing
(a) focus on the process of writing that leads
Trends in the teaching of writing in ESL and to the final written product;
other foreign languages have, not (b) help student writers to understand their
surprisingly, coincided with those of teaching own composing process;
of other skills, especially listening and (c) help them to build repertoires of strategies
speaking. You will recall from earlier chapters for prewriting, drafting, and rewriting;
that as communicative language teaching (d) give students time to write and rewrite;
gathered momentum in the 1980s, teachers (e) place central importance on the process of
learned more and more about how to teach revision;
fluency, not just accuracy, how to use (f) let students discover what they want to
authentic texts and contexts in the classroom, say as they write;
how to focus on the purposes of linguistic (g) give students feedback throughout the
communication, and how to capitalize on composing process (not just on the final
learners’ intrinsic motives to learn. Those product) to consider as they attempt to
same trends and the principles that under bring their expression closer and closer to
girded them also applied to advances in the intention;
teaching of writing in second language (h) encourage feedback both from the
contexts. instructor and peers;
(i) include individual conferences between
Three issues in the history will be highlighted teacher and student during the process of
for your consideration as you prepare to teach composition.
writing skills.
Perhaps you can personally appreciate what it
means to be asked to write something – say,
1. Process vs. product a letter to and editor, an article for a
A few decades ago writing teachers were newsletter, a paper for a course you’re taking
mostly concerned with the final product of – and to allow the very process of putting
writing: the essay, the report, the story, and ideas down on paper to transform thoughts
what that product should “look” like. into words, to sharpen your main ideas, to
Compositions were supposed to (a) meet give them structure and coherent
36
organization. As your first draft goes through not what you start out with but what your end
perhaps several steps of revision, your thesis up with.
and developing ideas more and more clearly
resemble something that you would consider a Control, coherence, and knowing your mind
final product. If you have done this, you have are not what you start out with but what you
used your own process approach to writing. end up with. Think of writing, then, not as a
way to transmit a message but as a way to
You may also know from firsthand knowledge grow and cook a message. Writing is a way to
what it is like to try to come up with a end up thinking something you couldn’t have
“perfect” final product without the above started out thinking.
process. You may have experienced “writer’s
cramp” (mental blocks) that severely Writing is, in fact, a transaction with words
hampered any progress. You may have felt a whereby you free yourself from what you
certain level of anxiety welling up within you presently think, feel, and perceive. You make
as you felt the pressure to write an in-class available to yourself something better than
essay that would be judged by the teacher, what you’d be stuck with if you’d actually
graded, and returned with no chance in the succeeded in making your meaning clear at
future to revise it in any way. The process the star. What looks inefficient – a rambling
approach is an attempt to take advantage of process with lots of writing and lots of
the nature of the written code (unlike throwing away – is really efficient since it’s
conversation, it can be planned and given an the best way you can work up to what you
unlimited number of revisions before its really want to say and how to say it. The real
“release”) to give students a chance to think inefficiency is to beat your head against the
as they write. Another way of putting it is that brick wall of trying to way what you mean or
writing is indeed a thinking process. trying to way it well before you are ready.
Peter Elbow (1973: 14-16) expressed this The new emphasis on process writing,
concept eloquently in his essay of two however, must be seen in the perspective of a
decades ago (he was a person well before his balance between process and product. As in
time!): most language teaching approaches, it is quite
possible for you go to an extreme in
The common sense, conventional emphasizing process to the extent that the
understanding of writing is as follows. Writing final product diminishes in importance. Try not
is a two-step process. First you figure out to let this happen! The product is, after all,
your meaning, then you put it into language: the ultimate goal; it is the reason that we go
…figure out what you want to say; don’t start through the process of prewriting, drafting,
writing till you do; make a plan; use an revising, and editing. Without that final
outline; begin writing only afterward. Central product firmly in view, we could quite simply
to this model is the idea of keeping control, drown ourselves in a sea of revisions. Process
keeping things in hand. Don’t let things is not the end; it is the means to the end.
wander into a mess.
2. Contrastive rhetoric
…I contend that virtually all of us carry this In 1966 an article was printed by Robert
model of the writing process around in our Kaplan that has been the subject of great
heads and that it sabotages our efforts to debate and discussion ever since. Kaplan’s
write. …This idea of writing is backwards. thesis was that different languages (and their
That’s why it causes so much trouble. Instead cultures) have different patterns of written
of a two-step transaction of meaning-into- discourse. English discourse, according to
language, think of writing as an organic, Kaplan (1966:14), was schematically
developmental process in which you start described as proceeding in a straight line,
writing at the very beginning – before you Semitic writing in a zigzag formation,
know you meaning at all – and encourage “Oriental” written discourse in a spiralling line,
your words gradually to change and evolve. and so forth (see below).
Only at the end will you know what you want
to say or the words you want to say it wit. You The point of his conclusions about how we
should expect yourself to end up somewhere write was, of course, that learners of English
different from where you started. Meaning is bring with them certain predispositions, which
come from their native languages, about how
37
to organize their writing. If English Writers get appreciation and use of English rhetorical
“straight” to the point and Chinese writers conventions.
“spiral” around the point, then a Chinese
speaker who is learning English will encounter 3. Authenticity
some difficulty in learning to write English A third issue in the teaching of writing
discourse. surrounds the question of how much of our
classroom writing is “real” writing. That is,
There were serious problems with Kaplan’s how authentic are the classroom writing
study. His diagrams and conclusions were exercises that we ask students to perform?
simplistic and overgeneralized. Simplistic, One could address this question by asking
because he based his conclusions about how much writing does the average, college-
English discourse on style manuals rather educated person in Western society do, and
than using date from actual writing in English. what kind of writing? I daresay very little, and
Overgeneralized, because one cannot that little amounts to filling out forms, writing
conclude that English writers consistently use telephone messages, and occasionally dashing
a “straight-line” attack on a thesis and off a letter or post card. In the era of
certainly cannot make any generalization that electronic communication (video, phone,
applies, for example, to all Oriental languages. computer, etc.) we are less and less called
Furthermore, without a native-speaking upon to write. I was recently consulted by a
English control group, one cannot determine if friend of mine who is studying to be certified
the “difficulty” of his sample data is simply the as a realtor. Part of his certification
difficulty any inexperienced writer might examination involved a simple one or two
encounter in learning to write. page written essay. The prospect frightened
him!
Nevertheless, there was and still is a ring of
truth to Kaplan’s claims. No one can deny the So, why do we want students to write? In
effect of one’s native culture, or one’s English for Academic Purposes (EAP), across
predispositions that are the product of the age-levels from elementary school
perhaps years of schooling, reading, writing, through university graduate courses, we write
thinking, asserting, arguing, and defending. In in order to succeed in mastering the subject
our current paradigm of attending carefully to matter, in school, writing is a way of life.
schemata and scripts, native language Without some ability to express yourself in
patterns of thinking and writing simply cannot writing, you don’t pass the course. Academic
be ruled out. A balanced position on this writing ranges from short phrases (as in fill-
issue, then, would uphold the importance of in-the-blank tests), to brief paragraphs (as in
your carefully attending to the rhetorical first “essay question” exercises and tests), to brief
language interference that may be at play in reports of many different kinds, to a full-
your students’ writing. But rather than holding length research paper. In vocational-technical
a dogmatic or predictive view (that certain English (where students are studying English
writers will experience difficulty because of in connection with a trade or occupation),
their native language), you would be more students need to fill out forms, write simple
prudent to adopt a “weak” position (see PLLT, messages, write certain conventional reports
chapter 8) in which you would consider a (for example, a bid on a contract, an
student’s cultural/literary schemata as one inspection report), and at the most “creative”
possible source of difficulty. end of the continuum, write a brief business
letter. In adult education and survival English
In recent years new research studies have classes, filling out simple forms and
appeared that tackle the issue of contrastive questionnaires may be as sophisticated as
rhetoric (see Leki, 1991). One important students’ needs get. This leaves EAP as the
conclusion from this renewed wave of major consumer of writing techniques,
research is the significance of valuing especially writing techniques that concern
students’ native-language-related rhetorical themselves with process, development of
traditions, and of guiding them through a ideas, argument, logic, cause and effect, etc.
process of understanding those schemata, but
not attempting to eradicate them. That self- Another way to look at the authenticity issue
understanding on the part of students may in classroom writing is to distinguish between
then lend itself to a more effective real writing and display writing. Real writing,
as explained by Raimes (1991), is writing
38
when the reader doesn’t know the “answer” 1. Permanence
and genuinely wants information. In many Once something is written down and delivered
academic/school contexts, however, if the in its final form to its intended audience, the
instructor is the sole reader, writing is writer abdicates a certain power: power to
primarily for the “display” of a student’s emend, to clarify, to withdraw. That prospect
knowledge. Written exercises, short answer is the single most significant contributor to
essays, and other writing in test situations are making writing a very scary operation!
instances of display writing. Student writers often feel that the act of
releasing a written work to an instructor is not
Should we as teachers incorporate more real unlike putting yourself in front of a firing
writing in our classrooms? In some ways, yes. squad. Therefore, whatever you can do as a
If ESL courses strive to be more content- teacher and guide and facilitator to help your
based, theme-based, or task-based, students students to revise and refine their work before
are more likely to be given the opportunity to final submission will help to give them
convey genuine information on topics of confidence in their work.
intrinsic interest. But display writing is not
totally unjustified by any means. Writing to 2. Production time
display one’s knowledge is a fact of life in the The good news is that, given appropriate
classroom, and by getting your students to stretches of time, a writer can indeed become
perform well in display writing exercises, they a “good” writer by developing efficient
can learn skills that will help them to succeed processes for achieving the final product. The
in further academic pursuits. bad news is that many educational contexts
demand student writing within time limits, or
The bottom line for your teaching is that if you “writing for display” as noted in the previous
are to stay in line with the principles of section (examination writing, for example).
learning and teaching already set forth in this So, one of your goals, especially if you are
book, and if you are to keep your teaching teaching in an EAP context, would be to train
purposeful and intrinsically motivation, then your mean sacrificing some process time, but
you must discover why your students need to with sufficient training in process writing,
write, what form their writing will therefore combined with practice in display writing, you
take, and steer your techniques in the can help our students to deal with time
direction of those purposes and forms. Then, limitations.
writing will be “real”, meaningful, and
communicative in the best sense of the term. 3. Distance
One of the thorniest problems writers face is
Types of Written Language anticipating their audience. That anticipation
ranges from general audience characteristics
In the previous chapter, on pages 286-287, to how specific words and phrases and
were thirty-some-odd types of written sentences and paragraphs are going to be
language “forms”. As you consider an ESL interpreted. The distance factor requires what
class that you might be teaching, how many I have called cognitive empathy (see PLLT,
of these types of writing will your students be Chapter 6), in that good writers can “read”
likely to produce themselves? Those types their own writing from the perspective of the
that they will indeed need, either for further mind of the targeted audience. Writers need
study of English or for their ultimate to be able to predict the audience’s general
academic/vocational goals, should then knowledge, cultural and literary schemata,
become the prime focus of “real” writing in specific subject-matter knowledge, and very
your classroom. importantly, how their choice of language will
be interpreted.
Characteristics of Written Language:
A Writer’s View 4. Orthography
Everything from simple greetings to extremely
Also in chapter 16, some characteristics of complex ideas are captured through the
written language, from the perspective of a manipulation of a few dozen letters and other
reader, were set forth. Let’s revisit those from written symbols. Sometimes we take for
a writer’s view-point. granted the mastering of the mechanics of
English writing by our students. If students
are non-literate in the native language, you
39
must begin at the very beginning with 8. Appropriately accomplish the
fundamentals of reading and writing. For communicative functions of written texts
literate students, if their native language according to form and purpose.
system is not alphabetic, new symbols have to 9. Convey links and connections between
be produced by hands that may have gotten events and communicate such relations as
too accustomed to another system. If the main idea, supporting idea, new
native language has a different phoneme- information, given information,
grapheme system (most do!), then some generalization, and exemplification.
attention is due here. 10. Distinguish between literal and implied
meanings when writing.
5. Complexity 11. Correctly convey culturally specific
In the previous chapter, the complexity of references in the context of the written
written – as opposed to spoken – language text.
was illustrated. Writers must learn how to 12. Develop and use a battery of writing
remove redundancy (which may not jibe with strategies, such as accurately assessing
their first language rhetorical tradition), how the audience’s interpretation, using pre-
to combine sentences, how to make writing devices, writing with fluency in the
references to other elements in a text, how to first drafts, using paraphrases and
create syntactic and lexical variety, and synonyms, soliciting peer and instructor
mucho more. feedback, and using feedback for revising
and editing.
6. Vocabulary
As we noted in Chapter 16, writing places a Types of Classroom Writing Performance
heavier demand on vocabulary use than does
speaking. Good writers will learn to take While various genres of written texts abound,
advantage of the richness of English classroom writing performance is, by
vocabulary. comparison, limited. Consider the following
five major categories of classroom writing
7. Formality performance:
Whether a student is filling out a
questionnaire or writing a full-blown essay, 1. Imitative, or, writing down
the conventions of each form must be At the beginning level of learning to write,
followed. For ESL students, the most difficult students will simply “write down” English
and complex conventions occur in academic letters, words, and possibly sentences in order
writing where students have to learn how to to learn the conventions of the orthographic
describe, explain, compare, contrast, code. Some forms of dictation fall into this
illustrate, defend, criticize, and argue. category although dictations can serve to
teach and test higher order processing as
Microskills for writing well. Dictations typically involve the following
steps:
Following the format from the previous three
chapters, microskills for writing production (1) Teacher reads a short paragraph once or
can be enumerated: twice at normal speed.
(2) Teacher reads the paragraph in short
1. Produce graphemes and orthographic phrase units of three or four words each,
patterns of English. and each unit is followed by a pause.
2. Produce writing at an efficient rate of (3) During the pause, students write exactly
speed to suit the purpose. what they hear.
3. Produce an acceptable core of words and (4) Teacher then reads the whole paragraph
use appropriate word order patterns. once more at normal speed so students
4. Use acceptable grammatical systems can check their writing.
(e.g., tense, agreement, pluralization), (5) Scoring of students’ written work can
patterns, and rules. utilize a number of rubrics for assigning
5. Express a particular meaning in different points. Usually spelling and punctuation
grammatical forms. errors are not considered as severe as
6. Use cohesive devices in written discourse. grammatical errors.
7. Use the rhetorical forms and conventions
of written discourse.
40
2. Intensive, or, controlled
Writing is sometimes used as a production Journal Entry:
mode for learning, reinforcing, or testing Yesterday at about eight o’clock I was sitting
grammatical concepts. This intensive writing in front of my table holding a fork and eating
typically appears in controlled, written tasteless noodles which I usually really like to
grammar exercises, This type of writing would eat but I lost my taste yesterday because I
not allow much, if any, creativity on the part didn’t feel well. I had a headache and a fever.
of the writer. My head seemed to be broken. I sometimes
felt cold, sometimes hot. I didn’t feel
A common form of controlled writing is to comfortable standing up and I didn’t feel
present a paragraph to students in which they comfortable sitting down. I hated everything
have to alter a given structure throughout. around me. It seemed to me that I got a great
So, for example, they may be asked to pressure from the atmosphere and I could not
change all present tense verbs to past; in breath. I was so sleepy since I had taken
such a case, students may need to alter other some medicine which functioned as an
time references in the paragraph. antibiotic.
The room was so quiet. I was there by myself
Guided writing loosens the teacher’s control and felt very solitary. This dinner reminded
but still offers a series of stimulators. For me of my mother. Whenever I was sick in
example, the teacher might get students to China, my mother always took care of me and
tell a story just viewed on a video tape by cooked rice gruel, which has to cook more
asking them a series of questions: Where than three hours and is very delicious, I think.
does the story take place? Describe the I would be better very soon under the care of
principal character. What does he say to the my mother. But yesterday, I had to cook by
woman in the car? ... myself even though I was sick, the more I
thought, the less I wanted to eat, half an hour
Yet another form of controlled writing is a passed. The noodles were cold, but I was still
dicto-comp. Here, a paragraph is read at sitting there and thinking about my mother,
normal speed; the teacher puts key words finally I threw out the noodles and went to
from the paragraph, in sequence, on the bed.
blackboard and asks students to rewrite the Ming Ling, PRC
paragraph from the best of their recollection
of the reading, using the words on the board. Teacher’s Response: This is a powerful piece
of writing because you really communicate
3. Self-writing what you were feeling. You used vivid details,
A significant proportion of classroom writing like “…eating tasteless noodles…”, “my head
may be devoted to self-writing, or writing with seemed to be broken…” and “…rice gruel,
only the self in mind as an audience. The most which has to cook more than three hours and
salient instance of this category in classrooms is very delicious.” These make it easy for the
is note taking, where students take notes reader to picture exactly what you were going
during a lecture for the purpose of later recall. through. The other strong point about this
Other note taking may be done in the margins piece is that you bring the reader full circle by
of books and on odd scraps of paper. beginning and ending with “the noodles.”
Begin alone when you are sick is
Diary or journal writing also falls into this difficult. Now, I know why you were so quiet
category. However, in recent years more and in class.
more dialogue journal writing takes pace, If you want to do another entry related
where students write thoughts, feelings, and to this one, you could have a dialogue with
reactions in a journal and an instructor reads your “sick” self. What would your “healthy”
and responds, in which case the journal and self say to the “sick” self? Is there some
an instructor reads and responds, in which advice that could be exchanged about how to
case the journal, while ostensibly written for prevent illness or how to take care of yourself
oneself, has two audiences. better when you do get sick? Start the
dialogue with your “sick” self speaking first.
Here is an entry from a journal written by an
advanced ESL student from China. The 4. Display writing
teacher’s response follows (from Vanett and It was already noted earlier that writing within
Jurich, 1985). the school curricular context is a way of life.
41
For all language students, short answer Principles for Designing Writing
exercises, essay examinations, and even Techniques
research reports will involve an element of
display. For academically bound ESL students, Out of all of these characteristics of the
one of the academic skills that they need to written word, along with micro skills and
master is a whole array of display writing research issue, a number of specific principles
techniques. for designing whiting techniques emerge.
5. Real Writing 1. Incorporate practices of “good”

While virtually every classroom writing task writers
will have an element of display writing in it, This first guideline is sweeping. But as you
nevertheless some classroom writing aims at contemplate devising a technique that has a
the genuine communication of messages to an writing goal in it, consider the various things
audience in need of those messages. The two that efficient writers do, and see if your
categories of real and display writing are technique includes some of these practices.
actually two ends of a continuum, and in For example, good writers:
between the two extremes lie some practical • focus on a goal or main idea in writing
instances of a combination of display writing • perceptively gauge their audience
and real. Three subcategories illustrate how • spend some time (but not too much!)
reality can be injected: planning to write
• easily let their first ideas flow onto the
(a) Academic. The Language experience paper
Approach gives groups of students • follow a general organizational plan as
opportunities to convey genuine information they write
to each other. Content-based instruction • solicit and utilize feedback on their writing
encourages the exchange of useful • are not wedded to certain surface
information, and some of this learning uses structures
the written word. Group problem-solving • revise their work willingly and efficiently
tasks, especially those that relate to current • patiently make as many revisions as
issues and other personally relevant topics, needed
may have a writing component in which
information is genuinely sought and conveyed. 2. Balance process and product
Peer-editing work adds to what would In the first section of this chapter, a good deal
otherwise be an audience of one (the was said about the process approach. Make
instructor) and provides real writing sure that the application of the process
opportunity. In certain ESP and EAP courses, principle does not detract from a careful focus
students may exchange new information with on the product as well.
each other and with the instructor.
3. Account for cultural/literary
(b) Vocational/technical. Quite a variety of backgrounds
real writing can take place in classes of Make sure that your techniques do not
students studying English for advancement in assume that your students know English
their occupation, Real letters can be written; rhetorical conventions. If there are some
genuine directions for some operation or apparent contrasts between student’s native
assembly might be given; and actual forms traditions and those that you are trying to
can be filled out. These possibilities are even teach, try to help students to understand what
greater in what has come to be called “English it is, exactly, that they area accustomed to
in the Workplace” where ESL is offered within and then by degrees perhaps, bring them to
companies and corporations. the use of acceptable English rhetoric.
(c) Personal. In virtually any ESL class, 4. Connect reading and writing
diaries, letters, post cards, notes, personal Clearly, students learn to write in part by
messages, and other informal writing can take carefully observing what is already written.
place, especially within the context of an That is, they learn by observing, or reading,
interactive classroom. While certain tasks may the written word. By reading and studying a
be somewhat contrived, nevertheless the variety of relevant types of text, students can
genuine exchange of information can happen. gain important insights both about how they
42
should write and about subject matter that 1. Prepare two sheets of paper with the
may become the topic of their writing. following:
a. What changes have occurred in my
5. Provide as much authentic writing as field in the last twenty years?
possible Your field-today’s date
Whether writing is real writing or for display, b. What changes do I expect to occur in
it can still be authentic in that the purposes my field in the next twenty years?
for writing are clear to the students, the Your field-the date twenty years from
audience is specified overtly, and that there is now
at least some intent to convey meaning.
Writing that is shared with other students in 2. As quickly as possible, think of as many
the class is one way to add authenticity. ideas as you can to answer the question
Publishing a class newsletter, writing letters to on sheet a.
people outside of class, writing a script for a a. Take between five and ten minutes to
skit or dramatic presentation, writing a list every idea that comes to your
resume, writing advertisements-all these can mind.
be seen as authentic writing. b. Do not evaluate your ideas. That will
come later.
6. Frame your techniques in terms of
prewriting, drafting, and revising 3. When you have written down everything
stages you can think of, go over the list to
Process writing approaches tend to be framed evaluate what you have written. Cross out
in three stages of writing. The prewriting the ideas that don’t fit.
stage encourages the generation of ideas,
which can happen in numerous ways: 4. Repeat this process (steps 2 and 3) for
• reading (extensively) a passage sheet b.
• skimming and/or scanning a passage
• conducting some outside research This process, called brainstorming is a useful
• brainstorming (see below) technique in writing because it permits you to
• listing (in writing-individually) approach a topic with an open mind. Because
• clustering (begin with a keyword, then add you do not judge your ideas as they emerge,
other words, using free association) you free yourself to come up with ideas that
• discussing a topic or question you might not even know you had.
• instructor-initiated questions and probes Brainstorming is one of several different ways
• freewriting (see below) to begin writing. In the following pages, we
will introduce some other methods that will
Examples of brainstorming and help you to explore ideas that you might want
freewriting, from Brown, Cohen, and O’Day’s to write about.
(1991) Challenges: a Process Approach to
Academic English, are given on pages 333 and • Working in a Group
334 In the preceding exercise you worked
individually, using brainstorming to establish
Generating Ideas your own ideas, to follow your own train of
thought. Another effective way to generate
• Brainstorming ideas is to work in a small group where you
Let’s think about the future for a moment. share your brainstormed ideas with the rest of
Let’s focus our attention on how it might the group members. By doing this, each of
affect your present or future job. Have you you will have an opportunity to further expand
thought about the changes that might occur in your own ideas.
your field? To help you think about this
question, you are going to make two lists of DIRECTIONS: Form a small group (three to
ideas concerning changes in your field or in five people). Use the following guidelines for
the field you plan to enter. your group discussion.
DIRECTIONS: Use your knowledge and 1. Take turns reading your list of changes in
imagination to follow these steps. your field to each other.
43
2. Compare your classmates’ lists to yours, Pay
looking for similarities and differences. Educational demands
a. Mark the changes on your list that are Pressure
similar. Information increase (B)
b. Add to your list new ideas of changes Consulting with others
that apply to your field. Competition for clients
Advertising
3. As a group, select three changes that Computerized business (D)
applied to the fields of each group Computerized diagnosis
member. If you have time, you can Less pay greater benefits (C)
discuss these three ideas.
• Free writing
4. Choose a reporter from your group to Your have just begun to explore the question
share your three changes with the rest of of changes in your field. Some of your ideas
the class. will interest you more than others. Now you
will have an opportunity to develop your
Here is an example of what the compared lists thinking about one of these ideas.
of a group of three students might look like.
(Notice that each list has some ideas that DIRECTIONS: Follow these steps to generate
have been crossed out. These ideas had further ideas on this topic.
already been eliminated by the student in the
last step of the brainstorming exercise 1. From your lists of changes, choose one
because they did not fit.) The changes that idea that interested you.
were similar in each list have been labelled. 2. Write that idea at the top of a clean sheet
of paper.
Teaching-Today 3. For ten minutes, write about this topic
Attitudes toward teachers (A) without stopping. This means that you
Information Explosion (B) should be writing something constantly.
Union activity a. Write down everything that comes to
More job security your mind.
Better benefits (C) b. Do not judge your ideas.
Use of textbooks c. Do not worry about your spelling and
Larger class size grammar.
Computers as teaching tools d. If you run out of things to say,
Computers for record keeping (D) continue writing whatever comes to
Competition for jobs your mind.
Greater student maturity
Higher diplomas This process is called freewriting. It is
Sales-Today designed to help you free ideas that you might
not realize that you have. An important aspect
Computerized inventory (D)
of freewriting is that you write without being
Customers’ bad attitudes (A)
concerned about spelling, punctuation, or
Distance from owners
grammar. Of course, these elements of
Pressure
writing are important, but students’ concern
Meeting people
about them can sometimes inhibit the free
Incentive pay
flow of their ideas. Freewriting is a technique
Consumer action
to generate ideas; it should be used as a
Need to know more about products (B)
beginning, as an initial exploration of the
More responsibility
ideas that your have about a topic.
More advancement changes
Fewer personnel
Your can use your freewriting to help you get
Time clocks
started with related tasks. In fact, you might
Students increased knowledge
want to refer to this freewriting when you are
Better benefits (C)
doing other writing tasks later in this unit.
Health Care-Today Therefore, you should put this and all other
Malpractice suits freewriting that you do into a notebook that
Less respect (A) you can refer to when you are generating
Hours ideas for future assignments.
44
The drafting and revising stages are the B. In the final paragraphs of the article “The
core of process writing. In traditional World’s Urban Explosion,” the author
approaches to writing instruction, students raises the question of what the effects of
either are given timed in class compositions to the population explosion might be in the
write from start to finish within a class hour, future. Imagine your city, town, or
or they are given a homework writing village in the year 2025. Imagine that
assignment. The first option gives no the population predictions did, in fact,
opportunity to students for systematic come true. Place yourself in the scene,
drafting, and the second assumes that if and describe what you see.
students did any drafting at all they would
simply have to learn the tricks of the trade on Note: Notice how different these topics are
their own. In a process approach, drafting is from one another. The first topic asks you to
viewed as an important and complex set of write an explanation which analyses a graph.
strategies, the mastery of which takes time, The second topic asks for description. Think
patience, and trained instruction. about the possible purposes of each topic.
How do you think these purposes will affect
Several strategies and skills apply to the the tone of each piece?
drafting/revising process in writing:
• getting started (adapting the freewriting
technique)
• “optimal” monitoring of one’s writing
(without premature editing and diverted
attention to working, grammar, etc.)
• Peer-editing (accepting/using classmates’
comments)
• using the instructor’s feedback
• “read aloud” technique (in small groups or
pairs, students read their almost-final
drafts to each other for a final check on
errors, flow of ideas, etc.)
• proofreading Generating ideas
First, we need to find ways to unlock the
Beginning on page 336 is another sample hidden ideas we have in our minds. In this
from the student book of Challenges unit you have learned to use brainstorming,
(1991:42-45), illustrating some of the above freewriting, and looping. Try these techniques
strategies, especially peer-editing, from the in any combination that works for you.
drafting and revising stages. Reading also helps to generate ideas. As you
write, keep in mind the information you
LESSON 3 learned about this topic in the readings.
COMPOSING ON YOUR OWN
Writing the First Draft
In this unit you have read about the issues After exploring your ideas, put them into
surrounding the predicted population paragraph form, keeping in mind how showing
explosion. You have also worked with and using facts and statistics makes writing
important writing techniques such as showing powerful and convincing. Our task here is to
and using facts and statistics. Let’s now try to discover how we can best express out ideas in
apply what you have learned to the writing the clearest manner possible so that our
process. readers will receive the same message, with
the same impact, that we intended.
The first draft
Peerediting
Choosing a topic What follows in an element of the writing
DIRECTIONS: Choose one of the following process that is especially important: sharing
topics to write about in a paragraph. what we have written with others, our
readers, to see if we have been successful in
A. Explain the information introduced in the conveying our intended meaning. This step
following bar graph. can be a fascinating adventure. We step out of
our own selves, to see what we have created
through the eyes of others, to discover the
45
impact of our words on the thoughts of our can revise the piece. Remember, however,
readers, so that we can then use the that you are the final judge as to what you
information to improve what we have written. want to include or eliminate in your writing.
We call this peerediting. Peerediting is a true Make corrections directly on your first draft.
sharing process. Not only do you get feedback Do not be afraid to mark up this paper. You
from your classmates, but you also give can scratch out unnecessary or irrelevant
feedback to them. It is a two-way street. You information, squeeze ideas that you want to
learn to be better writer and a better reader. add into the margin, and even cut up and
In the following exercise you will work with repaste your paper to change the order or
several classmates, taking the roles of both make additions. You might be surprised to see
reader and writer. the revising process of professional writers.
Their drafts will often be illegible to anyone
DIRECTIONS: Work with a group of four other but themselves!
classmates who chose to write on the same
topic as you did. The Second Draft
1. Discuss the idea-generating techniques Writing the Second Draft and

that you each used to write this Proofreading
composition. Once you have made the necessary changes
in your paper, you can rewrite it legibly. As
2. Read each other’s papers silently, and you are rewriting, you may think of more
answer the following questions for each changes that you would like to make. Do not
paper: hesitate to continue revising during this step.
a. What do you like the most about the Writing takes time and a lot of thought, so
writing? take advantage of this stage to keep
b. What is the main idea? improving what you have already done. After
c. Who is the audience, and what is the you have rewritten your paper, go over it
purpose? carefully to see if the language sounds correct
d. What convincing details does the and if your message seems complete and
writer use? understandable. Finally, submit your paper to
e. Where could the writer add details to your teacher.
make the piece more convincing?
f. What areas in the writing seem Using Your Teacher’s Feedback
unclear? When your paper is returned to you, spend
g. How could the writer make the piece time examining the comments your teacher
clearer? made. This is a good time to compare your
classmates’ responses to your teacher’s,
3. Now, for each paper, compare your notes taking into account the changes you made
on the questions to help the writer think of between the original draft and the revised
ways to improve the piece. paper. Did you improve on the parts of your
original paper that your classmates
Revising encouraged you to work on? Did your teacher
You have gotten feedback about your comment on aspects of your paper that your
composition from several classmates. Now classmates did not comment on? Share this
you can use what you learned about your information with the classmates you did
writing to improve it, to make it clearer and peerediting with. For each paper you looked
more convincing. Writers call this step of the at, compare the comments you made to the
process revising. All good writers go through teacher’s comments. Keep in mind the ideas
several steps of revision because they want to you and your teacher had in common about
make their writing the best it can be. At this each paper. Also, notice comments that your
point they reconsider what they have written, teacher made that you missed. This is
get feedback from others, and then make valuable information. You’ll use it the next
changes. time you write and the next time you do
peerediting.
Review your notes from your peerediting
session. Think about the comments made by Keeping a Journal
your peerreaders; in particular, comments In this unit we read about population growth,
they agreed on. If you agree with them, you about changes that we expect to take place in
46
the future that will affect our lives. For a student receives responses to written work,
moment, reflect back in time. Try to visualize errors –just one of several possible things to
a place from your distant past, any place that respond to- are rarely changed outright by the
sticks out in your mind. Now roll the clock instructor; rather, they are treated through
back up to the present. If the place looks very self-correction, peer-correction, and
different in the present, you’ve found your instructor-initiated comments.
journal topic. If not, start again until you
come up with a scene that has changed over a As you respond to your students’ writing,
period of time. When you’ve found this place remember that you are there as an ally, as a
that has changed, write about it. You can guide, as a facilitator. When the final work is
choose to describe it as it was in the past, in “turned in,” you may indeed then have to
the present, or you can do both. You might assume the position of judge and evaluator
want to write about how the changes in the (see below for some comments on
place have affected you. Whatever aspect of evaluation), but until then, the role of
the place you choose to write about, make consultant will be the most productive way to
sure that you have a single purpose, a central respond. Ideally, your responses –or at least
focus, and try to include detail that helps to some them- will be written and oral as you
develop that main point only. Remember that hold a conference, however short, with a
when you choose to write about something student. Under less than ideal conditions,
that is familiar and important to you, the task written comments may have to suffice.
of writing is easier and more pleasurable.
Here are some guidelines for responding to
7. Techniques should be as interactive the first draft:
as possible. (a) Resist the temptation to treat minor
It is no doubt already apparent that a (“local”) grammatical errors; major
process-oriented approach to writing (“global”) errors within relevant
instruction is, by definition, interactive (as paragraphs –see (e) below- can at this
students work in pairs and groups to generate stage be indicated, either directly (say, by
ideas and to peer-edit), as well as learner underlining) or quite indirectly (for
centered (with ample opportunities given to example, by a check next to the line in
students to initiate activity and exchange which an error occurs).
ideas). Writing techniques that focus on (b) Generally resist the temptation to rewrite
purposes other than compositions (such as a student’s sentences.
letters, forms, memos, directions, short (c) Comment wholistically, in terms of the
reports) are also subject to the principles of clarity of the overall thesis and the general
interactive classrooms. Group collaboration, structural organization.
brainstorming, and critiquing are as easily and (d) Comment on the introductory paragraph.
successfully a part of many writing-focused (e) Comment on features that appear to be
techniques. Don’t buy into the myth that irrelevant to the topic.
writing is solitary activity! Some of it is, to be (f) Question clearly inadequate word choices
sure, but a good deal of what makes a good and awkward expression within those
writer can be most effectively learned within a paragraphs/sentences that are relevant to
community of learners. the topic.
8. Sensitively apply methods of For the subsequent drafts, your responses

responding to and correcting your can include all of the above except that (a)
students’ writing. now may change its character some:
In Chapter 15, some principles of errors (g) Minor (“local”) grammatical and
correction were suggested for dealing with mechanical (spelling, punctuation) errors
learners’ speech errors. In the case of writing, should be indicated, but not corrected for
error correction must be approached in a the student.
different manner. Because writing, unlike (h) Comment on the specific clarity and
speaking, often includes an extensive strength of all main ideas, supporting
planning stage, error treatment can begin in ideas, and on argument and logic.
the drafting and revising stages, during which (i) Comment on any further word choices and
time it is more appropriate to consider errors expressions that may not be “awkward”
among several features of the whole process but are not as clear or direct as they could
of responding to student writing. As a be.
47
(j) Check cohesive devices within and across • use of description, cause/effect,
paragraphs. comparison/contrast
(k) In academic papers, comment on • consistent focus
documentation, citing sources, evidence,
and other support. Organization
(l) Comment on the adequacy and strength of • effectiveness of introduction
the conclusion. • logical sequence of ideas
• conclusion
9. Clearly instruct students on the • appropriate length
rhetorical, formal, conventions of
writing. Discourse
• topic sentences
Each type of writing has its formal properties. • paragraph unit
Don’t just assume that students will pick these • transitions
up by absorption. Make them explicit. A • discourse markers
reading approach to writing is very helpful • cohesion
here. For academic writing, for example, some • rhetorical conventions
of the features of English rhetorical discourse • reference
that writers use to explain, propose solutions, • fluency
debate, and argue are as follows: • economy
• a clear statement of the thesis or topic or • variation
purpose
• use of main ideas to develop or clarify the Syntax
thesis
• use of supporting ideas Vocabulary
• supporting by “telling:” describing
• supporting by “showing:” giving evidence, Mechanics
facts, statistics, etc • spelling
• supporting by linking cause and effect • punctuation
• supporting by using comparison and/or • citation of references (if applicable)
contrast • neatness and appearance
10. Make your final evaluation of student You will find a bit of disagreement among the
writing consistent with your overall “experts” on the system of weighting each of
approach. the above categories, that is, which of the six
The evaluation of writing, especially in a is most important, next, and so on. However,
process-oriented classroom, is a thorny issue. the order in which the six are listed here at
If you are a guide and facilitator of students’ the very least emphasizes the importance of
performance in the ongoing process of content over syntax and vocabulary, which
developing a piece of written work, how can traditionally might have had high priority.
you also be the judge? What do you judge?
In your evaluation of student writing, the
The answer to the first question –how can you most instructive evaluative feedback you can
be a judge and a guide at the same time- is give is your comments, both specific and
one of the primary dilemmas of all teachers. summative, regarding the student’s work. The
Juggling this dual role requires wisdom and six-category list above can serve as the basis
sensitivity. The key to being a judge is for such evaluations. If numerical scores are
fairness and explicitness in what you take either pedagogically or administratively
into account in your evaluation. Six general important to you, then you can establish a
categories are often the basis for the point scale (say, 0 to 5) for each of the above
evaluation of student writing (adapted from categories, and return papers with six
J.D. Brown, 1991): different scores on them. By avoiding a single
overall score you can help students to focus
Content on aspects of writing to which they need to
• thesis statement give special attention. If you still need to
• related ideas assign a single “grade” or score to each paper,
• development of ideas through personal then consider weighting the first few
experience, illustration, facts, opinions categories more heavily. You can thereby
48
emphasize the content-based flavour of your conventions. What does this say about
evaluation. Such a weighting scale might look what to teach in an ESL writing class?
like this:
3. With a partner, pick an ESL audience.
Content: 0 – 24 Brainstorm reasons or purposes for that
Organization: 0 – 20 group to write. Talk about how you would
Discourse: 0 – 20 teach toward those purposes by getting
Syntax: 0 – 12 students to do as much “real” writing as
Vocabulary: 0 – 12 possible?
Mechanics: 0 – 12
TOTAL 100 4. In pairs, turn back to pages 286 and 287
and review the types of written language
A key, of course, to successful evaluation is to listed there. Pick several familiar
get your students to understand that your audiences of contexts and decide which of
grades, scores, and other comments are the genres your students will actually need
varied forms of feedback from which they to produce. Prioritize them and share your
can all benefit. The final evaluation on one conclusions with the rest of the class.
composition simply creates input to the
learner for the next composition. 5. Rivers & Temperley (1978:265), listed 4
types or stages of classroom writing
Writing instruction in a communicative, performance:
interactive language course should be deeply
rooted in the twelve principles of language (a) Writing down (learning the
learning and teaching that have formed a conventions of the code)
train of thought throughout this book. As you (b) Writing the language (learning the
think about each principle, you can make the potential of the code)
connections. Automaticity, for example, is (c) Production (practicing the construction
gained as students develop fluency in writing, of fluent expressive sentences and
which can best be promoted through the paragraphs)
multiple stages of a process writing approach. (d) Expressive writing (using the code for
Meaningful learning is paramount as you try purposeful communication)
to get your students involved in topics of
interest and significance for them and in Compare these four to the five types of
authentic writing tasks. Perhaps you can written performance listed in this book (pp
continue down the list yourself. 327-330). Are they compatible?
Combinable? Are there omissions in either
TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION, ACTION AND list?
RESEARCH
6. On page 331, things that “good” writers
1. Explain how the process approach to do were listed. Do you agree with the list?
teaching writing could become (or may Can you add to the list? In what way do
have already become) yet another the other suggestions that follow
“bandwagon” that teachers blithely jump implement these behaviours? Discuss your
onto. How can you put the process opinions, additions, and classroom
approach into a perspective? What can be implications in a small group.
said for product oriented approaches?
7. On page 335, some specific steps for
2. If possible, read Kaplan (1966) in guiding students through stages of
preparation for this activity. In a group, drafting and revising a composition are
review the comments on cross-cultural listed. Review those steps again. If
differences and contrastive rhetoric (p. possible, sit in on a teacher-student
322). Then, discuss the validity of Kaplan’s conference in which the student’s essay is
diagrams. How do writing conventions being discussed. Notice the interaction
differ between or among cultures that you between student and teacher. Was the
are familiar with? In your group, pick one session effective? Why?
other culture to contrast English writing
to, and sketch out salient differences 8. Carefully look through the guidelines on
between the two sets of rhetorical methods of responding to written work (pp
49
340-341). With a sample first draft pedagogies.” TESOL Quarterly 25 (1), 123-
(supplied by your instructor), try to 143.
provide some written responses that
would stimulate the writer to make some The specific issue of contrastive rhetoric is
appropriate revisions. Compare your addressed here and looked at from the
responses with a partner discuss historical perspective of some twenty-five
differences as a whole class. years of concern over differences in the way
various languages and cultures define
9. There are many different scales and effective writing.
inventories for rating/evaluating written
work. The one presented here (pp. 342- Kroll, Barbara (Ed.). 1990. Second Language
343) is not exhaustive by any means. Can Writing: Research Insights for the Classroom.
you think of things you would add to the Cambridge University Press.
inventory? Look at an actual student’s
composition (supplied by your instructor) This anthology is a gold mine of references to
and try to rate the student’s performance the teaching of writing to second language
on the basis of the taxonomy. To do so, learners. Summaries of research studies are
you might want to experiment with offered, practical applications are clearly
assigning a numerical weighting scale (p. spelled out, and challenges for further
343). Compare your “diagnosis” with a research are offered.
partner. How well did the scale serve its
purpose?
10. If possible, observe an ESL writing class.

Use the list of then principles (pp. 331-
342) for designing writing techniques to
evaluate what you see. Discuss your
observations in a small group.
FOR YOUR FURTHER READING
Zamel, Vivian. 1982 “Writing: The process of

discovering meaning. TESOL Quarterly 16 (2)
195-209.
This was one of the first comprehensive

overviews of the process writing approach for
second language learners. Written in the early
1980s, it still stands as an effective statement
of the philosophy underlying an approach
which has now been revised and refined into
standard practice in many institutions.
Raimes, Ann. 1991. “Out of the woods:

Emerging traditions in the teaching of
writing.” TESOL Quarterly 25 (3), 407-430.
This is another in a series of comprehensive

summaries carried in the twenty-fifth
anniversary volume of the TESOL Quarterly.
Raimes describes and comments on five
“thorny” issues in the teaching of writing:
topics for writing, “real” writing, writing in the
academic arena, contrastive rhetoric, and
responding to writing.
Leki, Ilona, 1191. “Twenty-five years of

contrastive rhetoric: Text analysis and writing
50

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INTRODUCCIÓN

1. Consoliden su competencia comunicativa en el inglés escrito.

ORGANIZACIÓN DE LOS CONTENIDOS

• Metodología de la enseñanza del inglés.

El curso se plantea alrededor de tres ejes principales:

Desarrollar la comprensión lectora para enriquecer la capacidad de la expresión escrita

1. Reconocimiento de la lectura como elemento fundamental para mejorar la escritura

2. Aplicación de las principales estrategias de lectura puestas en práctica en cursos anteriores

• ¿En qué forma ayuda la lectura para mejorar la escritura?

1. Comprensión de los pasos del proceso de la expresión escrita

2. Análisis de los tipos de escritos según la información que contienen

• Jordan R. R. (1980), Academic Writing Course, Londres, Collins ELT.

4. Escribir grupalmente en el pizarrón un description paragraph de acuerdo con las instrucciones de

Reforzar el conocimiento de actividades de expresión escrita dirigidas a la práctica docente

1. Diseño y aplicación de actividades atractivas para alumnos de secundaria

1. Escribir en forma individual un enunciado en el que se mencione un recuerdo inolvidable y real

El profesor pregunta a la clase si se comprendió cada enunciado y pide participaciones para

1. Diversificación de las formas de trabajo

• Descubrimiento de formato y convencionalismos de un texto modelo del tipo que después se va

2. Planeación y análisis de las sesiones de práctica en la escuela secundaria

En el curso Observación y Práctica Docente IV analizarán la experiencia en su conjunto.

Se recomienda evaluar a los alumnos de dos maneras:

Sample activity 1. Writing contrasting concepts

a) How do (would) you teach grammar? Discuss with a partner.

Sample activity 2. Writing a general-specific text

Sample activity 3. Writing an abstract

a) In groups of three, discuss the following questions:

Sample activity 4. Using questions to write a narrative (possible in Secondary School)

Sample activity 5. Writing an e-friend e-mail (possible in Secondary School)

Postcards sometimes necessary to make your

The stories you write may be about events

Here is a useful plan to follow to make your

Adapted from Brown Kristine and Susan Hood.

Remember: Keep all the writing you do in

This means you ‘storm’ or search your brain

e.g. Brainstorming in preparation for a job

There is no one way to write. The ideas in the

Whatever you do, you will benefit from lots of Exercise 1

(Keep the notes you make for use in exercise

ASKING YOURSELF ‘WH’ QUESTIONS

Thing of as many questions as you can.

e.g. Ordering notes in preparation for a job

a) A note to someone who is minding your

(Keep your notes for exercise 6, Unit 2,

others work more on paper. Some writers

Revising The essay is the basic form of writing assigned

The teacher tells students she is going to

Example 3: newspaper headlines/article Example 4: report writing (advanced)

Two last points: correcting is important, but it

certain standards of prescribed English

5. Real Writing 1. Incorporate practices of “good”

1. Discuss the idea-generating techniques Writing the Second Draft and

8. Sensitively apply methods of For the subsequent drafts, your responses

10. If possible, observe an ESL writing class.

FOR YOUR FURTHER READING

Zamel, Vivian. 1982 “Writing: The process of

This was one of the first comprehensive

Raimes, Ann. 1991. “Out of the woods:

This is another in a series of comprehensive