TABLA DE CONTENIDO PREFACE ....................................................................................................................... 5 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................... 6 PREFACIO ..................................................................................................................... 7 INTRODUCCION ......................................................................................................... 8 1. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR STUDYING .................................................................. 9 1.

RECOMENDACIONES PARA ESTUDIAR ................................................................ 10 2. GRAMTICA ESPAOLA BSICA .......................................................................... 11 2.1. Tipos de palabras ............................................................................................ 11 2.1.1. Sustantivo ................................................................................................ 11 2.1.2. Verbo ...................................................................................................... 12 2.1.3. Pronombre............................................................................................... 13 2.1.4. Articulo ................................................................................................... 14 2.1.5. Adjetivo ................................................................................................... 15 2.1.6. Adverbio.................................................................................................. 15 2.1.7. Preposiciones .......................................................................................... 16 2.2. Grupos de palabras ......................................................................................... 16 3. PHONEMES ............................................................................................................ 17 3.1. Vowels ............................................................................................................ 17 3.2. Consonants...................................................................................................... 18 4. SPELLING ............................................................................................................... 19 5. ENGLISH GRAMMAR ............................................................................................. 20 5.1. Types of words ................................................................................................ 20 5.1.1. Noun ....................................................................................................... 20 5.1.2. Verb ........................................................................................................ 21 5.1.3. Pronouns ................................................................................................. 22 5.1.4. Articles .................................................................................................... 23 5.1.5. Adjectives ................................................................................................ 24 5.1.6. Adverbs ................................................................................................... 25 5.1.7. Prepositions ............................................................................................. 25 5.1.7.1. Space ............................................................................................... 25 5.1.7.2. Time ................................................................................................ 30 5.2. Groups of words .............................................................................................. 31 6. PRINCIPAL TYPES OF SENTENCES ......................................................................... 32 7. SENTENCES WITH VERB TO BE ............................................................................. 33 7.1. Affirmative sentences ....................................................................................... 33 7.2. Negative sentences .......................................................................................... 34 7.3. Interrogative sentences .................................................................................... 35 7.3.1. Simple questions (yes/no) ......................................................................... 35 7.3.2. Wh- questions ......................................................................................... 35 7.4. Contractions & answers ................................................................................... 36 7.4.1.To Be contractions .................................................................................... 36 7.4.2. Simple question answers .......................................................................... 36 7.4.3. Wh-questions answers ............................................................................. 37 8. POSSESSIVE FORMS ............................................................................................... 38

8.1. Possessive adjectives ....................................................................................... 38 8.2. Possessive pronouns ........................................................................................ 39 8.3. Genitive........................................................................................................... 40 8.4. Other possessive forms .................................................................................... 40 8.5. Possessive wh-questions .................................................................................. 41 9. CONTRAST & SIMILARITY FORMS ......................................................................... 42 9.1. Comparative forms .......................................................................................... 42 9.2. Superlative forms ............................................................................................. 43 9.3. Irregular comparative & superlative forms ........................................................ 44 9.4. Equality ........................................................................................................... 45 9.5. Proportionality ................................................................................................. 45 10. OBJECTS ............................................................................................................... 46 10.1. Direct Objects ............................................................................................... 46 10.2. Indirect Objects ............................................................................................. 46 10.3. Object personal pronouns.............................................................................. 48 10.4. Actions as objects .......................................................................................... 49 11. TENSES ................................................................................................................. 50 11.1. Simple Tenses ................................................................................................ 50 11.1.1. Simple present ....................................................................................... 50 11.1.2. Simple Past ............................................................................................ 51 11.1.2.1 Regular past form pronunciation ..................................................... 53 11.1.3. Simple Future ......................................................................................... 53 11.1.4. Future connected to present ................................................................... 54 11.1.5. Past cancelled ........................................................................................ 56 11.2. Progressive tenses .......................................................................................... 56 11.2.1 Present progressive.................................................................................. 56 11.2.2. Past progressive ..................................................................................... 58 11.2.3. Future progressive .................................................................................. 59 11.3. Perfect tenses ................................................................................................. 60 11.3.1. Present perfect ....................................................................................... 60 11.3.2 Past perfect ............................................................................................. 61 11.3.3. Future perfect ......................................................................................... 62 11.4. Perfect progressive tenses............................................................................... 63 11.4.1. Present perfect progressive ..................................................................... 63 11.4.2. Past perfect progressive .......................................................................... 65 11.4.3. Future perfect progressive ...................................................................... 66 11.5. Table of tenses ............................................................................................... 67 12. WH-questions ....................................................................................................... 68 12.1. Wh-expressions ............................................................................................. 70 12.1.1. What...................................................................................................... 70 12.1.2. Who ...................................................................................................... 71 12.1.3. Where.................................................................................................... 72 12.1.4. How ...................................................................................................... 72 12.1.5. Whatlike ............................................................................................ 73 12.1.6. When..................................................................................................... 73 12.1.7. What time .............................................................................................. 74
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12.1.8. How long .............................................................................................. 74 12.1.9. How old ................................................................................................ 75 12.1.10. Whose ................................................................................................. 75 12.1.11. Why .................................................................................................... 76 12.1.12. How much .......................................................................................... 76 12.1.13. How many........................................................................................... 77 12.1.14. How often ........................................................................................... 77 12.1.15. How (description) ................................................................................ 78 12.1.16. What type of ........................................................................................ 78 12.1.17. What (something) ................................................................................ 79 12.1.18. Which (something)............................................................................... 79 12.2. Auxiliary verbs .............................................................................................. 80 12.2.1. BE .......................................................................................................... 80 12.2.2. DO ........................................................................................................ 80 12.2.3. HAVE .................................................................................................... 81 12.2.4. WILL...................................................................................................... 81 12.3. Protagonists ................................................................................................... 82 12.4. Principal action ............................................................................................. 82 12.5. Complements ................................................................................................ 83 12.5.1. Objects .................................................................................................. 84 12.5.2. Manner .................................................................................................. 84 12.5.3. Place ..................................................................................................... 84 12.5.4. Time ...................................................................................................... 85 12.6. Asking for protagonist .................................................................................... 85 12.7. Wh-questions with prepositions ..................................................................... 86 13. Indicating existence............................................................................................... 87 13.1. Simple forms ................................................................................................. 87 13.2. Tenses ........................................................................................................... 88 13.3. Wh-questions indicating existence................................................................. 88 14. Adverbs of frequency ............................................................................................ 89 15. Connections .......................................................................................................... 90 16. Imperatives............................................................................................................ 93 16.1. Orders ........................................................................................................... 93 16.2. Negative orders ............................................................................................. 93 16.3. Invitations...................................................................................................... 94 17. Passive voice ......................................................................................................... 94 17.1. Alternative structures ..................................................................................... 96 18. Modal auxiliary verbs ............................................................................................ 97 18.1. Can could be able to ................................................................................ 97 18.2. May might be allowed to ......................................................................... 99 18.3. Will would ............................................................................................... 101 18.3.1. Conditions ........................................................................................... 101 18.3.1.1. Possible imaginary situation ......................................................... 101 18.3.1.2. Improbable imaginary situation .................................................... 102 18.3.1.3. Impossible imaginary situation ..................................................... 102 18.4. Shall should ought to had better .......................................................... 103
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18.5. Must have to have got to be to............................................................. 106 18.6. Need dare used to .................................................................................. 109 18.7. Modal auxiliary verbs wh-questions ............................................................. 112 19. COMPOUND PRONOUNS & ADVERBS ............................................................ 114 20. QUANTITY ......................................................................................................... 116 20.1. Any some no .......................................................................................... 117 21. HAVE .................................................................................................................. 119 21.1. Have possession ....................................................................................... 119 21.2. Have completed action ............................................................................. 119 21.3. Have obligation ........................................................................................ 120 21.4. Have causative ......................................................................................... 121 21.4.1. To cause someone to do something ..................................................... 121 21.4.2. To cause something to be done ............................................................ 121 22. CONTRACTED SENTENCES ................................................................................ 122 22.1. Contracted affirmative sentences .................................................................. 122 22.2. Contracted negative sentences ..................................................................... 122 22.3. Contracted contrasting sentences ................................................................. 123 23. REPORTED SPEECH ............................................................................................ 123 23.1. Reporting sentences ..................................................................................... 124 23.2. Reporting simple questions .......................................................................... 124 23.3. Reporting wh-questions ............................................................................... 124 23.4. Reporting commands ................................................................................... 125 24. Question tags ...................................................................................................... 125 25. Two words actions .............................................................................................. 125 25.1. Phrasal actions ............................................................................................. 126 25.2. Prepositional actions .................................................................................... 126 26. APPENDIX........................................................................................................... 127 26.1. Date & time ................................................................................................. 127 26.2. Differences between British and American orthography ............................... 127 26.3. Differences between British and American pronunciation ............................ 128 26.4. Numbers table ............................................................................................. 128 26.5. Irregular verbs .............................................................................................. 129

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PREFACE

The purpose of this book is not to be worked alone, but with appropriate assistance. It is designed to be used along the English Craft, Grammar & Practice classes, or at least with an audio, web or professional support. It was planned as a tool for students who have had over difficulties with other English methods, and it resolves them according to: Method: In this method, it is not supposed the student has a previous, developed enough knowledge of Spanish basic grammar, as other methods guess, being that hard for the students to be introduced to basic English grammar. Therefore, to begin this book, the student will find a complete Spanish grammar basis. Time: Perhaps, the most commonly known phenomenon of studying English is the drop-outs. It is well known that only a small quantity of students who started an English course, finishes it, and to get worse, just a few of them actually learns English properly. The main reason is the time it gets (between 400 and 1000 hours), and this method is intended to take less than 200 hours of grammar class. This is possible due to a reorganisation of class activities, being vocabulary repetition the one takes time the most; so, if students can do that at home by themselves, time can be optimally used, reducing the quantity of hours dramatically. Means: The student does not spend so much money as with other methods, being so little time; and the low number of students per class guarantees the best approach and learning, making of this an excellent investment.

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INTRODUCTION

English language is not only a talent anymore, it has become now a necessity, and there are many reasons to support that. Currently - as seen ahead -, English may be considered the easiest language still in use in the world. It can be learned fast and does not have useless grammar complications as the rest of most spoken languages. A few centuries ago, English language started to spread around the world because of wars and colonisations. That is one of the reasons it is spoken as a native language in Canada, New Zealand, Australia, India, Philippines, Belize, Jamaica, Hong Kong, Ireland, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Trinidad and some other Caribbean, African and Asian countries (besides Great Britain and United States of course). Besides this, it has been taught almost in every country of the world, being, in fact, one of the most important ways to communicate and travel pleasantly. Since North American technology and science have ruled worlds development lately, English language is seen everywhere: TV programmes, films, music, games, appliances, computers, Internet, food, arts, engineering, tools, education, etc. This is the first edition of a work planned to involve the student in the entire English environment, giving the best tool for personal and professional growth, and willing to improve as necessary in the future.

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PREFACIO

Este libro tiene como propsito ser trabajado con la asistencia adecuada. Se diseo para ser usado en las lecciones English Craft, Grammar & Practice, o como mnimo, con soporte de tipo profesional, en lnea o recursos de audio. Fue planeado como herramienta para los estudiantes que han tenido importantes dificultades con otros mtodos de ingles, y las resuelve teniendo en cuenta: El mtodo: En este mtodo, no se da por hecho que el estudiante tenga un conocimiento de gramtica espaola bsica previo y suficientemente desarrollado, tal y como otros mtodos suponen, haciendo difcil al estudiante la presentacin a la gramtica inglesa bsica. Por lo tanto, al comenzar este libro, el estudiante encontrara una completa base de gramtica espaola. El tiempo: Tal vez, el fenmeno mas comnmente conocido al estudiar ingles es el de las deserciones. Es bien sabido que solo una pequea cantidad de estudiantes que comienza un curso de ingles lo termina, y peor aun, solo unos pocos aprende ingles con propiedad. La razn principal es el tiempo que toma (entre 400 y 1000 horas), y se planeo que este mtodo tome menos de 200 horas de clase gramatical. Esto es posible debido a una reorganizacin de las actividades en clase, siendo la repeticin de vocabulario la que toma ms tiempo; as, si los estudiantes pueden hacerlo en su hogar por si mismos, se puede emplear ptimamente el tiempo, reduciendo dramticamente la cantidad de horas. Los medios: El estudiante no invierte tanto como con otros mtodos, debido al corto tiempo; y el bajo numero de estudiantes por clase garantiza el mejor enfoque y aprendizaje, haciendo de esta una excelente inversin.

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INTRODUCCION

El idioma ingles no es solo una aptitud mas, ahora se ha convertido en una necesidad, y hay muchas razones para respaldar esto. Actualmente como se comenta mas adelante -, el ingles puede ser considerado el idioma ms fcil todava usado en el mundo. Puede aprenderse rpido y no tiene complicaciones gramaticales intiles como el resto de idiomas mas hablados. Hace unos pocos siglos, la lengua inglesa comenz a difundirse alrededor del mundo debido a guerras y colonizaciones. Esta es una de las razones por la que es hablado como lengua nativa en Canad, Nueva Zelanda, Australia, India, Filipinas, Belice, Jamaica, Hong Kong, Irlanda, Sur Africa, Zimbabwe, Trinidad y algunos otros pases caribeos, africanos y asiticos (adems de Gran Bretaa y Estados Unidos por supuesto). Adems de esto, se ha enseado en casi todos los pases del mundo, siendo de hecho, una de las formas ms importantes de comunicarse y viajar agradablemente. Teniendo en cuenta que la ciencia y tecnologa norteamericana han orientado el desarrollo mundial en los ltimos aos, el idioma ingles se ve en todas partes: programas de televisin, cine, msica, juegos, electrodomsticos, computadoras, Internet, comida, artes, ingeniera, herramientas, educacin, etc. Esta es la primera edicin de un trabajo planeado para involucrar al estudiante en un completo ambiente en ingles, proporcionando la mejor herramienta para el crecimiento personal y profesional, y preparado para desarrollarse como sea necesario en el futuro.

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1. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR STUDYING 1. English is the easiest language to learn 2. Everybody has the same learning skill 3. Spanish is one of the most difficult languages to learn 4. It is necessary to mechanise and to apply given rules 5. The ability of deducing must be acquired and used 6. It is not necessary to translate for understanding 7. Expressions must be given sense truly 8. In order: reading, writing, listening, speaking, and understanding 9. Look for any chance to speak without postponing it 10. Every rule has an exception 11. Spanish must be learned properly 12. When something seems complex, it is due to ask 13. Do not compel to study, create the need to do it 14. It is due to study with importance, looking after every detail 15. Profit from clues and extract all the data from questions 16. Encourage studying. Do it with energy 17. Committing mistakes is the best way to learn 18. Be persevering. End what you start 19. Be positively demanding with yourself 20. Learn to think with a different logic 21. Logic is the greatest tool 22. Pronounce properly, aloud, and completely 23. Make known with the English expressions around, which you have not noticed 24. Breed credibility in what you learn 25. Encourage a confidence environment

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1. RECOMENDACIONES PARA ESTUDIAR 1. Ingles es el idioma ms fcil de aprender 2. Todos tenemos la misma capacidad de aprendizaje 3. Espaol es uno de los idiomas ms difciles de aprender 4. Se debe mecanizar y aplicar las formulas dadas 5. Se debe desarrollar y emplear la habilidad de deducir 6. Para entender no es necesario traducir 7. Se debe dar sentido a las expresiones fielmente 8. En orden: leer- escribir- escuchar - hablar - pensar 9. Buscar cualquier oportunidad para hablar sin posponerlo 10. Toda regla tiene excepcin 11. Se debe aprender espaol bien 12. Es obligatorio detenerse y preguntar cuando algo se ve complicado 13. No se obligue a estudiar, cree la necesidad 14. Se debe estudiar con seriedad cuidando de cada detalle 15. Aproveche las pistas y squele toda la informacin a las preguntas 16. Motvese para estudiar, hgalo con energa 17. Cometer errores es la mejor forma de aprender 18. Sea perseverante, termine lo que comienza 19. Sea sanamente exigente consigo mismo 20. Aprenda a pensar con lgica distinta 21. La lgica es la herramienta mxima 22. Pronuncie bien, fuerte y completo 23. Familiarcese con las expresiones que lo rodean y no ha notado 24. Fomente credibilidad en lo que aprende 25. Promueva un ambiente de confianza

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2. GRAMTICA ESPAOLA BSICA

La gramtica es la estructura en que deben ir organizadas las palabras: Palabra Unidad mnima del idioma con significado.

2.1. Tipos de palabras Por importancia y frecuencia de uso: 2.1.1. Sustantivo algo Personas Animales Cosas Ideas

estudiante Juan familia

perro Pluto jaura

casa Londres ciudades inteligencia vida propsitos

Como se observa en los ejemplos, los sustantivos se dividen en personas, animales, cosas e ideas que pueden ser: Nombres propios: Juan, Pluto, Londres (comienzan con mayscula). Nombres comunes: estudiante, perro, casa. Nombres colectivos: familia, jaura, urbanizacin. En espaol todos poseen gnero: masculino y femenino asignados a cosas e ideas irregularmente (sin seguir regla alguna). Su nmero (singular = 1, plural > 1), depende de s son contables o no contables:

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11

Contables Aqu llamados elementos. Reciben su nombre debido a que pueden enumerarse y formar plural. En singular generalmente van acompaados de un articulo. Forman su plural de manera regular (siguiendo una regla), aadiendo s o es al final, adems de ciertas reglas ortogrficas. Ej. Luz - luces.

No contables Aqu llamados sustancias. Reciben su nombre debido a que no pueden enumerarse ni formar plural. Generalmente van precedidos de algn tipo de medida la cual si puede variar en nmero. Ej. poco queso - mucho queso un kilo de queso - dos kilos de queso Como excepcin, solo formaran plural para referirse a su tipo mas no a su nmero. Ej. quesos europeos

EJERCICIO: Nombre 20 sustantivos de cada tipo (persona, animal, cosa, idea)

2.1.2. Verbo accin En espaol se caracteriza por tener las terminaciones -ar, -er, -ir. Tambin por la conjugacin (adaptacin) - ciertamente compleja e irregular- que tiene que hacerse de este al tiempo y persona. Un ejemplo bsico de conjugacin muestra estos tiempos y conjugaciones distintas (de acuerdo a la real academia).

Persona

Presente

Presente Pretrito Pretrito Subjuntivo Indefinido Imperfecto Lea Leas Lea Leamos Lean Le Leste Ley Lemos Leyeron Lea Leas Lea Leamos Lean

Futuro

Potencial Simple Leera Leeras Leera Leeramos Leeran

Yo Tu Ud./l/ella Nosotros Ellos

Leo Lees Lee Leemos Leen

Leer Leers Leer Leeremos Leern

Pretrito Imperfecto Subjuntivo Leyera Leyeras Leyera Leyramos Leyeran

Infinitivo: Gerundio: Participio pasado: Imperativo:

leer leyendo ledo lee, lea, lean

Se tom como ejemplo la accin (verbo) leer, y como se puede ver las variaciones son complejas, numerosas (36 en este ejemplo) e irregulares; adems, los nombres dados

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pueden causar confusin a los estudiantes. Por esta razn se da a continuacin una explicacin sencilla de estos nombres: Presente subjuntivo: se usa para complementos de futuro e indicar propsito (para que yo lea). Pretrito indefinido: se usa para una accin en pasado sin especificar cuando, pero s su terminacin. Pretrito imperfecto: se usa para una accin en pasado interrumpida. Potencial simple: se usa para una accin posible pero condicionada (yo leera s...) Pretrito imperfecto subjuntivo: se usa para un propsito no cumplido y para dar una condicin (... s yo leyera...). Infinitivo: es la forma pura de la accin (sin conjugar). Gerundio: forma tambin llamada participio presente, progresivo o continua, se caracteriza por las terminaciones -ando, -endo. Participio pasado: se usa para indicar una accin terminada y formar los tiempos perfectos, adems de convertir las acciones en adjetivos; llamado aqu P.P., se caracteriza por las terminaciones -ado, -ido (a excepcin de formas irregulares. Ej. Escribir - escrito, no escribido. Imperativo: se usa para dar ordenes o exhortaciones. En espaol tiene tres conjugaciones diferentes (tu, usted, ustedes). Ej. Estudia (tu), estudie (Ud.), estudien (Uds.)

EJERCICIO: Conjugue 5 acciones en todas las formas

2.1.3. Pronombre reemplaza algo Su funcin no es solo reemplazar nombres propios como parece a simple vista, sino a todo tipo de personas, animales, cosas e ideas. Por lgica, si reemplaza algo, no va al lado de algo sino en vez de algo. Explicando sencillamente su orden, se asimilan mejor los conocimientos bsicos obtenidos. Para llevar a cabo una comunicacin eficaz se requieren ciertos elementos mnimos, de los que alguna vez se habr estudiado; aunque si no se recuerdan, aqu se explican de nuevo: Emisor es quien comienza a comunicar, hablando o escribiendo (1).

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Receptor es quien escucha o lee (2). Mensaje es acerca de que o quien se habla o escribe, o persona que no se involucra en el proceso (3). Con estos elementos es suficiente para explicar la formacin y orden de los pronombres.

3 1
No. 1 2 3 singular Yo Tu, usted l, ella plural Nosotros Ustedes Ellos, ellas

EJERCICIO: Estudie y aprenda los pronombres

2.1.4. Articulo identifica algo Por lgica, debe ir al lado de algo y nunca solo. Identifica algo, dicindonos si es algo conocido o desconocido, y en espaol tambin indica su nmero y gnero. Definido algo especifico o conocido El libro La clase Los libros Las clases Indefinido algo no especifico o desconocido Un libro Una clase Unos libros Unas clases

Se usa con elementos y sustancias. Se usa solo para elementos a menos que Ej. El queso se refiera a las clases de sustancias Ej. En espaol tambin se usa para algo en Un queso francs general o para algo ya especificado de alguna forma Ej. Los perros ladran, el seor Gonzlez, la semana pasada.

EJERCICIO: Estudie y aprenda los artculos

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2.1.5. Adjetivo descripcin de algo Aqu lo dividiremos en dos tipos: caracterstica y estado Caracterstica (descripcin fija) Azul Grande Delgado Inteligente Veloz Responde a la pregunta Cmo es? Estado (descripcin temporal) Feliz Aburrido Fro Caliente Bien Responde a la pregunta Cmo est?

Por supuesto que el hecho de que una descripcin sea fija o temporal depende del algo. Ej. La descripcin caliente es temporal refirindose a algo como el caf, pero fija refirindose a algo como el fuego.

EJERCICIO: Nombre 20 caractersticas y 20 estados

2.1.6. Adverbio descripcin de una accin No es difcil recordar esta definicin si descomponemos la palabra adverbio en dos: ad- (adjetivo = descripcin) y -verbio (verbo = accin). Los tipos bsicos son: Adverbio de modo cmodamente, as Adverbio de frecuencia siempre, frecuentemente Adverbio de lugar aqu, sobre la mesa Adverbio de tiempo ahora, en la maana

EJERCICIO: Nombre 5 adverbios de cada tipo (modo, frecuencia, lugar, tiempo)

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2.1.7. Preposiciones conectan a algo Al conectar nos dan idea de lugar, tiempo o modo: A, ante, bajo, con, contra, de, desde, en, entre, hacia, hasta, para, por, segn, sin, sobre, tras

EJERCICIO: De un ejemplo del uso de cada preposicin

2.2. Grupos de palabras frase y oracin Frase 2 palabras = algo / accin. Ej. La mejor forma de vivir, estar trabajando. Oracin 2 palabras = algo + accin. Ej. Yo estudio ingles.

EJERCICIO: De 10 ejemplos de frases y 10 de oraciones

NOTAS

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3. PHONEMES They are characteristic language sounds and serve to guarantee optimal English pronunciation; so, it is necessary to memorise the ones different from Spanish and use these symbols correctly

3.1. Vowels

// //

ea (in one movement)

It is made pronouncing ea in only one mouth movement clearly eo (in one movement)

It is made pronouncing eo in only one mouth movement clearly

/ /

medium sound (in one movement)

It is pronounced keeping the tongue from touching any part in the mouth and is nothing alike with a-e-o

/i/ /I/ /u/ /U/

ii

It is pronounced withdrawing side mouth muscles i-e

It is pronounced with no mouth movement so that it tends to an e sound uu

It is pronounced extending lips forwards u-o

It is pronounced with no mouth movement so that it tends to an o sound

EXERCISE: Study and learn vowel phonemes

ENGLISH CRAFT 17

3.2. Consonants

/b/ /v/

bilabial

It is pronounced by touching both lips each other labiodental

It is pronounced by touching the lower lip with the upper teeth

//

sh (voiceless)

It is pronounced as an s but lifting tongue just touching palatal part (voiceless)

// // /r/

zh (voiced)

It is pronounced as an s but lifting tongue just touching palatal part (voiced) th (s with tongue between teeth)

It is pronounced as an s but drawing tongue slowly out of teeth back

It is pronounced by drawing tongue a little backwards

EXERCISE: Study and learn consonant phonemes

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4. SPELLING

This is a quiet important instrument for you, if you are in a situation where either, you cannot understand something or you cannot get understood; so, you can ask somebody to spell it or you can spell it if necessary.

A B C D E F

/ei/ /bi/ /ci/ /di/ /i/ /ef/

G /i/ H /eich/ I /ai/

J K L M N O P Q R

/ei/ /kei/ /el/ /em/ /en/ /ou/ /pi/ /kiu/ /r/

S T U V W X Y Z

/es/ /ti/ /iu/ /vi/ /dabliu/ /eks/ /uai/ /zi/

EXERCISE: Spell your name and 20 words more

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5. ENGLISH GRAMMAR After studying and getting confident about basic Spanish grammar, we can go on to English grammar being sure of recognising its basic elements.

5.1. Types of words Word smallest part of language with meaning 5.1.1. Noun something

People

Animals

Things

Ideas

student John family

dog cow cattle

house London cities intelligence life purposes

Regular plural forms (according to a rule) As in Spanish most of plurals are formed adding an -s at the end of the word E.g. student students Additional rules are formed as follows -Words ending in -ss, -sh, -ch, -x add -es E.g. class classes, fish fishes, beach beaches, box boxes -Words ending in -y preceded by a consonant change -y and add -ies E.g. family families -Most words ending in -f, and -fe change and add -ves E.g. life lives

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Singular Student Common endings Class Fish Beach Box -ss, -sh, -ch, -x Family (cons.)-y Life -f, -fe

Plural Students Add -s Classes Fishes Beaches Boxes Add -es Families Change -y by -ies Lives Change -f, -fe by -ves

Irregular plural forms (no rule). Singular Man Woman Child Mouse Louse Tooth Foot Goose Kitty Ox Plural Men Women Children Mice Lice Teeth Feet Geese Kitten Oxen

Things have no specific gender (male or female), but informally, ships, boats and cars are female

EXERCISE: Write 20 nouns of each kind (person, animal, thing, and idea), give 4 examples of each regular plural form, and study and memorise irregular plural forms

5.1.2. Verb action In English, verbs are not so complex to conjugate as in Spanish, as you can see it in

tenses.
But unlike Spanish, in English it is quiet important to note several types of verbs: Full, auxiliary, and modal auxiliary.
ENGLISH CRAFT 21

FULL: is the principal action. It is the most common verb and can not be used to make questions or negative sentences. E.g. I study AUXILIARY: as seen, helps principal verb to indicate tense, and mainly to make questions and negative statements. They are: BE (am, is, are, was, were), DO (do, does, did), and HAVE (have, has, had) E.g. I am studying, I do not study, have I studied? MODAL AUXILIARY: as auxiliary verbs, help principal action to make questions and negative sentences, but instead of indicating tenses, indicate a special intention or message. They are: CAN, COULD, MAY, MIGHT, WILL, WOULD SHALL, SHOULD, OUGHT TO, HAD BETTER, MUST, HAVE TO, HAVE GOT TO, BE TO, NEED, DARE, USED TO. E.g. I can study I should study I must study ability recommendation obligation

EXERCISE: Write 20 principal actions

5.1.3. Pronouns replace something

Follow the same rules as in Spanish, but it is necessary to detail them more in English. Here are four kinds: Subject Personal replace the protagonist only Object Personal replace the object of the action Possessive replace possessor Reflexive replace object when it is protagonist and agent (when is self acted), and are also used to emphasise Demonstrative replace something indicating distance and quantity

Demonstrative Near Far

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Singular This That

Plural These Those

Personal subject I You He She It We You They

Personal object Me You Him Her It Us You Them

Possessive Mine Yours His Hers Its Ours Yours Theirs

Reflexive Myself Yourself Himself Herself Itself Ourselves Yourselves Themselves

EXERCISE: Study and learn pronouns

5.1.4. Articles identify something They always accompany something; so, they cannot stand alone. They identify something as either specific-known or uncertain-unknown: Definite (Specific-known) The book The eraser The books The erasers The cheese Can be used with no restrictions for singular, plural and substances. It is not used when generalising or already specified in any way. E.g. The milk is white Milk is white The next week Next week Are not used before Proper names (with or without titles) Mr. Brown, President Reagan. Except for families: The Smiths Lakes or mountains: Lake Guatavita, Mount Everest Meals: breakfast, lunch, and dinner Sports: I like football (substances in general)
23

Indefinite (Uncertain-unknown) A book An eraser Used only for singular elements. For plural and substances, use some Some books Some erasers Some cheese

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Illnesses (British): I have toothache Body parts or clothes (use poss. adj.): Put your hat on your head Places as institutions: home, work, church, school, bed, court, hospital, prison, and town

EXERCISE: Study and learn articles

5.1.5. Adjectives description of something

They always precede something, and do not get plural s. Can be used as something by adding the word one-ones. E.g. The big one, the big ones When more than one adjective precedes something, the word AND is not used. E.g. A big, fast car The beautiful, large house Demonstrative pronouns (this, that, these, those) can also be used as adjectives preceding something to indicate distance and quantity They can be fixed or temporal descriptions.

Characteristic (fixed) They do not change easily Colour Black, red Size Big, small Physical Tall, beautiful Mental Intelligent, honest Answer the question What.like?

State (temporal) They change easily Temper Happy, angry Temperature Hot, cool Health Sick, fine

Answer the question How.?

EXERCISE: Write 20 characteristics and 20 states

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5.1.6. Adverbs description of an action Are used to indicate how, how often, when and where an action is carried out. Adverb of manner mostly adjectives + ly: happily Adverb of frequency neveralways Adverb of time preposition + time: on Monday, now Adverb of place preposition + something: at home, here

EXERCISE: Give 5 examples of each kind of adverb (manner, frequency, time, and place)
5.1.7. Prepositions connect to something Connect something/pronoun with the rest of the sentence indicating space, time and mode 5.1.7.1. Space 5.1.7.1.1. Position These prepositions are supposed to be used with actions implying position, or movement but keeping the same position (to convey their appropriate meaning).

1. AT

1. AT: Indicates presence with no specific position. E.g. I am at home (It is not necessary to specify)
4. OVER 6. ABOVE

3. ON

8. BEHIND 2. IN

9. IN FRONT OF

5. UNDER

7. BELOW
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2. IN: Indicates an internal position, as contained by the reference place. E.g. I am in the classroom (contained by). 3. ON: Indicates a contact position, out of reference place. E.g. I am on the chair (external and supported by). 4. OVER: Indicates a superior, vertical, and covering position. E.g. the second floor is over me (covering me). 5. UNDER: Indicates the opposite of OVER: Inferior, vertical, and covered position. E.g. I am under the second floor (covered by). 6. ABOVE: Indicates a superior position, but not necessarily vertical or covering as OVER. E.g. The clouds are above me (superior but not vertical nor covering me). 7. BELOW: Indicates the opposite of ABOVE: Inferior, but not necessarily vertical or covered position. E.g. I am below the clouds (inferior but not vertical nor covered by). 8. BEHIND: Indicates a back position, covered horizontally. E.g. My chair is behind my desk 9. IN FRONT OF: Indicates the opposite of BEHIND, a face, covering horizontal position. E.g. My desk is in front of my chair

11. BETWEEN 10. AMONG

10. AMONG: Indicates a centred position, in the middle or surrounded by more than two elements (or not referring to identity). E.g. I am among the people 11. BETWEEN: Indicates a centred position, in the middle of two elements (or referring to identity). E.g. I am between him and her 12. ON TOP OF: Indicates the same as ON, but refers to limited size (external position). E.g. the antenna is on top of the building 13. AT THE TOP OF: Indicates a high, unspecific position, not necessarily ON the reference place (internal position). E.g. The upper floors are at the top of the building

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14. AT THE BOTTOM OF: Indicates a low, based position (internal), Not underunderneath-beneath (external position). E.g. The lower floors are at the bottom of the building

12. ON TOP OF

13. AT THE TOP OF

15. AT THE BACK OF

16. AT THE FRONT OF

15. AT THE BACK OF: Indicates an interior position behind the reference place. E.g. The yard is at the back of the house 16. AT THE FRONT OF: Indicates an interior frontal position. E.g. The entrance is at the front of the house

14. AT THE BOTTOM OF UNDERNEATH BENEATH

17. OPPOSITE

17. OPPOSITE: Indicates a similar position to IN FRONT OF, but necessarily facing the reference point. E.g. I am opposite you
22. BEYOND 21.FAR FROM

18. AT THE SIDE OF

19. BESIDES NEXT TO BY

20. NEAR CLOSE TO

REFERENCE PLACE

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27

18. AT THE SIDE OF: Indicates lateral, bordering position to the reference place (interior). E.g. He is sitting at the side of the sofa 19. BESIDES, NEXT TO, BY: Indicate immediate lateral, bordering position to the reference place (exterior). E.g. He is standing besides the sofa 20. NEAR, CLOSE TO: Indicate proximity, relative short distance to the reference place but not necessarily BESIDES. E.g. San Francisco is near Los Angeles 21. FAR FROM: Indicates the opposite of NEAR, CLOSE TO; a remote, relatively long distance to the reference place. E.g. Chicago is far from Los Angeles 22. BEYOND: Indicates a more distant position than a point far from the reference place. E.g. New York is beyond Chicago

EXERCISE: Study and learn prepositions seen

5.1.7.1.2. Movement These prepositions are supposed to be used with actions implying movement (to convey their appropriate meaning).

3.INTO

4.OUT OF

1.TO

2.FROM 5.AROUND

6.ONTO

7.OFF

11.ALONG 9. UP 8.THROUGH 12.ACROSS 10. DOWN

13. PAST BY
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1. TO: Indicates the movement destination (final point). E.g. I travel to France 2. FROM: Indicates the opposite of TO, a movement origin (initial point). E.g. I travel from Spain 3. INTO: Indicates a movement interior destination (destination as container). E.g. They go into the classroom 4. OUT OF: Indicates the opposite of INTO a movement interior origin (origin as container). E.g. They go out of the classroom 5. AROUND: Indicates circular movement. E.g. I travel around the world 6. ONTO: Indicates a movement two-dimensional destination (as from above). E.g. The cat jumps onto the table. 7. OFF: Indicates the opposite of ONTO, a movement two-dimensional origin (as from below). E.g. The cat jumps off the table. 8. THROUGH: Indicates a movement from beginning to end in a three dimensions reference place, passing it. E.g. The submarine goes through the ocean 9. UP: Indicates an ascending movement (from a lower to a higher position). E.g. I go up the mountain in the morning 10. DOWN: Indicates the opposite of UP, a descending movement (from a higher to a lower position). E.g. I go down the mountain in the afternoon 11. ALONG: Indicates a parallel movement beside the reference place (adjacent to or in line with). E.g. I walk along the river. 12. ACROSS: Indicates a movement similar to THROUGH, from beginning to end, but on a two dimensions reference place (transversely) . E.g. The ship goes across the ocean 13. PAST, BY: Indicate a movement to and beyond the reference place (passing it). E.g. I drove by your house but I didnt enter.

EXERCISE: Study and learn prepositions seen

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5.1.7.2. Time 5.1.7.2.1. Position These prepositions are supposed to be used when indicating a precise moment (position in time). Saturday May 5th Mothers day

ON

AT

6 oclock 8:30 p.m. noon - midnight dawn - dusk sunrise - sunset breakfast - lunch - dinner NIGHT*

IN

2000 January Summer - Autumn - Winter - Spring the morning - the afternoon - the evening

ON DAYS ON is used when indicating days with their names, precise dates, and special dates. AT HOURS AT is used when indicating hours in every way: with numbers, sun positions, and meals. NOTE: Night is not actually a precise hour, it is a period of the day, but has mostly been indicated as an hour. IN YEARS, MONTHS, SEASONS & PERIODS OF THE DAY IN is used when indicating the rest of specific moments not indicated with ON or AT: Years, months (remember that in English names of months and days are written with capital letters, even if they are in the middle of a sentence), seasons and periods of the day except night*.

EXERCISE: Write 5 adverbs of time with each time preposition seen

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5.1.7.2.2. Movement These prepositions are supposed to be used when indicating an action beginning, end, or duration.

AFTER DURING FOR FROM SINCE

BEFORE BY TO UNTIL(TILL)

AFTER: Indicates the time later than the point of time mentioned (following). E.g. I go to bed after I have dinner BEFORE: Indicates the time previous to the point of time mentioned (preceding). E.g. I have dinner before I go to bed DURING, FOR: Indicate the quantity of time employed (period of time). E.g. I sleep for eight hours BY: Indicates the limit of time for accomplishing an action. E.g. The homework is by Monday FROM, SINCE: Indicate the beginning of an action (starting time). E.g. The class is since 7 a.m. TO, UNTIL: Indicate the end of an action (final time). E.g. The class is until 8 p.m.

EXERCISE: Write 5 adverbs of time with each time preposition seen

5.2. Groups of words Phrase and sentence Phrase 2 words = something / action It is a group of two or more words that represents either, something (something phrase) or an action (action phrase). E.g. The tall woman, to have been working
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Sentence 2 words = something + action It is a group of two or more words that represents both: something (something or a pronoun, called here protagonist), plus an action. E.g. I study, the tall woman has been working for 5 hours

EXERCISE: Study and learn the difference between phrase and sentence

6. PRINCIPAL TYPES OF SENTENCES RULES

It is necessary to learn by heart the following rules, in order to mechanise and apply them communicating properly. They are based on conventional grammar rules, but now to make it easier and friendly, their basic components are represented as follows:

Subject (something/pronoun), called here protagonist, is the star of the action)

Verb, called here action () Complement (optional) Aux. Auxiliary verb Wh-exp. Wh-expression

Affirmative (+) = + + () These are the most used. E.g. You study English Negative (-) = + aux. + NOT + + () Indicate the opposite of an affirmative sentence. E.g. You do not study English Interrogative (?) questions = There are two main types: Simple (yes/no) = aux. + + + () ? Asks for a single answer of two options: yes or no. E.g. Do you study English? Wh- (informative) = Wh-exp. + aux. + + + () ? Asks for precise information, it is not answered as simple question. E.g. What do you study?

EXERCISE: Study and learn rules seen

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7. SENTENCES WITH VERB TO BE This is the most important English verb, and the one with the most variations. That is why it is the first and most practised English verb. Different from Spanish, it is possible to learn it fast and easily (remember its double Spanish meaning besides Spanish complex conjugations)

I You He, She, It We They

PRESENT am are is are are

PAST was were was were were

FUTURE will be will be will be will be will be

Now we have a protagonist (something/pronoun) and an action (to be). For complement, something, adverbs of place/time and descriptions can be used. 7.1. Affirmative sentences = + + () Using nouns (something) as complements must be done according to protagonist and logic sense. E.g. I am a student They are students It is a book He was a student You were students This will be a book (Remember to use an article when referring to one element -singular countable something-). Using adverbs of place is easier; it is not necessary to do it according to protagonist, just using any preposition of space-position, and adding something (remember to use an article when referring to one element -singular countable something-). E.g. I am at home They are in England It is under the table He was behind John You were between John and Mary This will be beside the book In order to use adverbs of time, it is necessary to place first an adverb of place and to keep sense with verb tenses. Remember adverbs of place are mostly time prepositions +
ENGLISH CRAFT 33

something (since, until, before and after can be followed by a sentence too), but they can also be independent expressions as yesterday and last week). E.g. I am at home on Monday They are in England for two weeks It is under the table since this morning He was behind John at breakfast You were between John and Mary last week This will be beside the book after it is clean Using adjectives (descriptions) is simple. Difference must be made between characteristics and state when they may get confused. Remember descriptions do not change for plural in English. E.g. I am intelligent They are intelligent It is hot He was sad You were sick This will be fine

EXERCISE: Write 20 affirmative sentences of each complement (something, place, time, description)
7.2. Negative sentences = + aux. + NOT + + () In this case it is important to know that if verb TO BE is in present or past, it is the only one that can be its own auxiliary verb, for negative and interrogative sentences. So it results that in present and past, the word NOT (adverb of negation), is placed after TO BE; and in future it is placed according to the rule (after WILL). E.g. I am not a student It is not a book He was not behind John You were not between John and Mary I am not at home on Monday They are not in England for two weeks They are not intelligent This will not be fine

EXERCISE: Write the negative form of the affirmative sentences you did

34 ENGLISH CRAFT

7.3. Interrogative sentences simple and wh-questions 7.3.1. Simple questions (yes/no) = aux. + + + () ? As with negative sentences, the use of TO BE as an auxiliary verb, depends on tense: present, past, future. So, in present and past, verb TO BE is located at the beginning of the sentence, changing place with the protagonist; and in future it is done according to the rule (WILL is separated from BE). E.g. Are you a student ? Is it a book ? Was he behind John ? Were you between John and Mary ? Are you at home on Monday ? Are they in England for two weeks ? Are they intelligent ? Will this be fine ?

EXERCISE: Write the simple question of the affirmative sentences you did
7.3.2. Wh- questions = Wh-exp. + aux. + + + () ? The first and main component of wh-questions (informative questions), is the whexpression (the information we want to know), which is not always made up of only one word; so, to start, it is necessary to know at least the ones corresponding to the complements seen so far (see 7.4.3. Wh-questions answers). A complete list will be seen at the wh-questions section.

In this course special approach and attention are given to this kind of sentence, since they are fundamental for practising in conversation.
What are you ? What is it ? Where was he ? Where were you ? When are you at home ? How long are they in England ? What are they like ? How will this be ?

EXERCISE: Write the wh-questions of the affirmative sentences you did

ENGLISH CRAFT 35

7.4. Contractions & answers 7.4.1.To Be contractions As in many other languages, for informal situations some abbreviations have been used to make it shorter. In English it is mostly seen when using verb To Be. They can be used according to type of sentence Affirmative contractions TO BE am is are was were will be Negative contractions TO BE am is are was were will be CONTRACTION no contraction no contraction no contraction wasnt werent wont be EXAMPLE Im not a student Shes not a teacher Youre not in the classroom That wasnt on the table They werent fat He wont be tall CONTRACTION m s re no contraction no contraction ll be EXAMPLE Im a student Shes a teacher Youre in the classroom That was on the table They were fat Hell be tall

Note that depending on tense and whether they are affirmative or negative, possibility of contraction changes

EXERCISE: Contract the sentences you did when possible

7.4.2. Simple question answers Remember simple questions can be answered either, yes or no, followed of either, an affirmative or negative sentence as it corresponds. However, such sentences may be given complete (long answers) or abbreviated (short answers) to avoid useless repetitions. In order to give short answers, the next rules must be used:

36 ENGLISH CRAFT

Affirmative short answer Yes, + aux. (no contraction) Affirmative contraction is only possible in long answers Yes, I am Yes, he is Yes, you are Yes, she was Yes, we were Yes, they will Negative short answer No, + negative contraction Negative contractions for IS, ARE (isnt, arent), are only possible in short answers. No, I am not (this form is never contracted) No, he isnt No, you arent No, she wasnt No, we werent No, they wont Note the option of contraction differs from affirmative to negative short answers.

EXERCISE: Give negative and affirmative short answers for the simple questions you did
7.4.3. Wh-questions answers The way wh-questions are answered must not be after translation but after mechanizing the following rule (in order to answer fast and precisely). E.g.

Wh-exp. + aux. + + + () ?

What

is

it

How

will this be ?

How long are they

in England?

It is required to recognise first, the protagonist, then the auxiliary verb (tense), the full verb, and finally what the wh-expression asks (wh-answer).
ENGLISH CRAFT 37

What asks for something (see details afterwards) Where asks for an adverb of place: prep. + something When asks for an adverb of time: prep. + something, time How asks for a description state Whatlike asks for a description characteristic Who asks for a persons name or designation How long asks for duration of an action (for,during) What time asks for a precise hour (at)

+ aux. + + wh-answer + () It is a book This will be fine

The complement position is determined by its nature and logic: Remember that every complement of time (adverb of time) must be placed at the end of every sentence; so, it means that if a wh-answer is an adverb of time, it goes after any other complement. E.g.

+ aux. + + () + wh-answer They are in England for two weeks

It is highly recommended to mechanise this rule applying it by frequent practice; so, it could be possible to answer a question, understanding it without translating it.

EXERCISE: Study and learn wh-expressions answers

8. POSSESSIVE FORMS It is very important to keep in mind that: Possessive forms gender refers exclusively to possessor, and not to possession. If possessive is feminine the possession is not necessarily feminine. E.g. He is her husband, John is Maries father Possessive forms do not change for plural. The s of possessive pronouns* never means plural. E.g. Singular: It is your car, plural: They are your cars, Singular: It is yours, plural: They are yours

8.1. Possessive adjectives As adjectives, describe something; so they must be used preceding something. They cannot stay alone.
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POSSESSOR I You He John She Mary It The car We They The dogs

POSS. ADJECT. My Your His His Her Her Its Its Our Their Their

EXAMPLE That is my book This will be your book She is his wife It is his house It was her book They will be her friends It is its colour He is its owner Those are our parents He was their teacher It is their food

EXERCISE: Write 20 sentences using possessive adjectives

8.2. Possessive pronouns As pronouns, replace something; so they must be used instead of something. They cannot be preceded or followed by something (only by an action or a connector). They can replace possessor and possession together. Some of them are made up after possessive adjectives plus a final s (remember it does not mean plural) POSSESSOR I You He John She Mary We They The dogs POSS. ADJ. My Your His His Her Her Our Their Their POSS. PRON. Mine Yours His His Hers Hers Ours Theirs Theirs EXAMPLE That book is mine This book will be yours She is his The house is his The book was hers They will be hers They are ours He was theirs The food is theirs

It is possible to replace possessions with subject personal pronouns to avoid repetitions. Note that HIS is used as both, possessive adjective and pronoun. There is no possessive pronoun for possessor IT.

EXERCISE: Write 20 sentences using possessive pronouns

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39

8.3. Genitive possessor + s + possession This possessive form provides the name of the possessor separated by an apostrophe and an s (s) before the possession. (Do not confuse genitive s with TO BE contraction s = is) If name of possessor already ends in s, only the apostrophe is placed. It is only used when possessor is a person or an animal. Definite article THE, must not be used for possession. Can be used as either: Possessive adjective or possessive pronoun (preceding possession or alone). That is why this form is widely used.

Its Johns house Its Charles house Its my parents house Its the dogs house The house is Johns The house is Charles The house is my parents The house is the dogs

used as possessive adjective name of possessor ends in s plural possessor article for possessor not possession used as possessive pronoun

EXERCISE: Write 20 sentences using genitive forms

8.4. Other possessive forms The preposition -connector- OF can precede possessive pronouns and genitive when possession has the indefinite article: a, an, some; or a number Its a house of Johns Theyre some friends of Janes Theyre two friends of Janes Its one of Johns houses Theyre some of Janes friends Theyre two of Janes friends Possession can be indicated in two ways if possessor is not a person or an animal, or if possessor is described in any way: Connecting possession to possessor with OF. E.g.

The door of the house is red The colour of the sky is blue It is the book of the boy who studies English
40 ENGLISH CRAFT

Using possessor as a description, before possession. E.g.

The house door is red The sky colour is blue The car speed is good

EXERCISE: Write 20 sentences using other possessive forms

8.5. Possessive wh-questions Whose + possession asks for a possessive form Remember not to translate to understand but to apply the rule and memorise what whexpression asks for. Wh-expression WHOSE is generally followed by the possession with no article in an informal way, but it is also possible to avoid it when it is not necessary. Whose car is this? Informal Whose is this car? Formal

Whose book will this be ?

This will be her book This book will be hers This will be Janes book This book will be Janes This book will be hers This will be Janes book This book will be Janes This book will be hers This will be Janes book This book will be Janes Its his Its Johns

Whose is it ?

EXERCISE: Write 20 WHOSE wh-questions with their answers

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9. CONTRAST & SIMILARITY FORMS So as to compare and distinguish descriptions of either, something or actions; comparative, superlative, equality and proportionality forms are used. 9.1. Comparative forms It is required to have at least two protagonists to compare, and an action base. Comparative forms are determined by the description used: - Its size (number of syllables), - Its nature (regular-irregular), - Its purpose (increasing > or decreasing <), - If it describes something: adjective (when is TO BE or similar verbs) - If it describes an action: adverb = adjective + -ly (when is not TO BE or similar verbs) The connector used is THAN, so the common rule is:

+ + comparative form + than + aux. + + + comparative form + than + (informally)

When description contains more than one syllable, usually either: MORE to increase (>) or LESS to decrease (<) are placed preceding description. E.g. She is more beautiful than she is You sing more beautifully than her He is less intelligent than him They study less intelligently than he does

-ly -ly

However, most of descriptions in English are made up of only one syllable; so to make it shorter and easier, it is added at the end of the description the particle -er instead of the word MORE for increasing (>). For decreasing (<) (LESS) there is no change. E.g. I am taller than you They look older than I do I look less old than them Jane was faster than John was These cars go slower than those Those cars go less slow than those do When description ends in consonant-vowel-consonant, last consonant must be repeated before adding -er. E.g. This is bigger than that He was fatter than he was
42 ENGLISH CRAFT

She was thinner than her They seem sadder than them Two-syllable descriptions are added -er if they end in -y (change y by i). E.g. They seem uglier than they do English is easier than Spanish I will be happier than he will You look prettier than her

EXERCISE: Write 20 comparative sentences

9.2. Superlative forms When distinguishing something from a group, referring to a limit description (maximum or minimum), superlative forms are used. As comparative forms, superlatives forms are up to the description used: Its size (number of syllables), Its nature (regular-irregular), Its purpose (maximising or minimising ), If it describes something: adjective (when is TO BE or similar verbs) If it describes an action: adverb = adjective + -ly (when is not TO BE or similar verbs)

Definite article THE, must be placed preceding description, so the common rule is:

+ + THE + superlative form + ()

As comparative forms, when description contains more than one syllable, usually either: THE MOST to maximise () or THE LEAST to minimise () are placed preceding description. E.g.

She is the most beautiful You sing the most beautifully He is the least intelligent They study the least intelligently

-ly -ly

As with comparative forms, when the description is of only one syllable, a particle (-est), is added at the end of the description instead of the word MOST for maximising (). For minimising () (LEAST) there is no change. E.g.
ENGLISH CRAFT 43

I am the tallest They look the oldest I look the least old Jane was the fastest These cars go the slowest Those cars go the least slow

Superlative forms change as comparative forms: Last consonant is repeated when consonant-vowel-consonant, and two-syllable descriptions are added -er if they end in y (change y by i). E.g.

This is the biggest He was the fattest She was the thinnest They seem the saddest

They seem the ugliest English is the easiest I will be the happiest You look the prettiest

EXERCISE: Write 20 superlative sentences

9.3. Irregular comparative & superlative forms A few descriptions are not applied rules seen before. They must be memorised. DESCRIPTION good bad, ill little much, many, a lot of far They are used as regular forms. E.g. This is better than that You work less than John does We speak English the best I study the most NOTE: The meat I like the most is fish = The meat I like best is fish COMPARATIVE better worse less more further SUPERLATIVE The best The worst The least The most The furthest

EXERCISE: Write 20 sentences using irregular comparative and superlative forms

44 ENGLISH CRAFT

9.4. Equality When indicating similarity of descriptions, It may be used the structure asas for affirmative and negative sentences, and the structure soas only for negative sentences. E.g. They work as efficiently as her (she does) You do not run as (so) fast as Jane Its as easy as I think This wasnt so (as) difficult as that When expressing only equality without a description, the preposition LIKE can be used. E.g. They work like her (she does) You do not run like Jane Its like I think This wasnt like that

EXERCISE: Write 20 sentences indicating equality with and without a descrption

9.5. Proportionality When increase or decrease are proportional for two descriptions, it means that they develop at the same time. In English a particular structure is used:

The + comparative form, the + comparative form

The comparative form may be followed by a complement if necessary. E.g.

The bigger, the heavier The more beautiful, the more expensive The less expensive, the better The more I study, the more I learn The more they sleep, the less they work The younger you are, the faster you run

EXERCISE: Write 20 examples of proportionality

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45

10. OBJECTS Objects are something affected by the action in some way: Directly or indirectly. Actions different from TO BE must be used, being possible to affect something, and conjugating them is easier than TO BE. We start using as protagonist only either: Any plural form or the pronouns I and YOU; so, it is only necessary to place the action as found in the dictionary (pure form); in any other way some changes must be done (singular protagonist). 10.1. Direct Objects A direct object is directly affected by the action. It means it is something part of the action, necessarily present in some way at the same time of the action. It can be determined in any of the following ways: It is the victim of the action It is acted according to the action It is the what or whom (to who) of the action It is something following the action as a noun (possibly with an article) or an object pronoun, no any other kind of words (preposition or description)

Remember not to confuse a direct object with an adverb (place, time or manner), and that not all the actions may have objects. The actions that are not followed immediately by something, like the actions implying movement, are not objective. When they may be followed immediately by something, they are reasonably objective. E.g.

Direct object

++
Cats drink milk I study English You read the book We see the teacher They call him

EXERCISE: Write 20 sentences with direct object

10.2. Indirect Objects As deduced, an indirect object is indirectly affected by the action; It is something not necessarily present at the same time of the action, and receives the direct object in any way. It can be placed in two different modes:
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 Indirect object
After direct object, preceded by the prepositions TO or FOR

+ + + to/for +
Before direct object with no preposition

+ ++
Notice that when using TO or FOR (first mode), it is necessary to know if direct object is directed to indirect object (TO), or if it is in benefit of it (FOR). To + I.O. is directly implicated as a recipient Bring, give, hand, lend, offer, owe, pass, promise, read, sell, send, show, take, teach, throw, and write. For + I.O. is benefited not being implicated in the action Bring, book, build, buy, cook, fetch, find, get, keep, leave, make, order, reserve, save Both ways can be used, but in common English for simplicity and avoiding use of either TO or FOR, it is preferable for the student to use the second mode. Of course, it is necessary to use objective actions, and someone who can receive the direct object in some way. E.g. I give milk to the cat You teach English to the students I read the book for Mary I give the cat milk You teach the students English I read Mary the book It is understandable that if two objects are present with no connector (to or for), the first one is the indirect object.

EXERCISE: Write 20 sentences with direct and indirect objects in both forms

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10.3. Object personal pronouns As pronouns they are intended to replace, in this case, objects. They can be use to replace both, direct and indirect, when connectors TO or FOR are used (first mode), when not (second mode), only one of the objects can be replaced (usually indirect object). E.g.

I give it to it You teach it to them I read it for her I give it milk You teach them English I read her the book

NOTE:

Write to me British Write me American

For translating to Spanish, attention must be given to the fact that Spanish object pronouns position differs from English. So, the following table is given to be used Object pronoun me you him her it us you them Direct object translation me lo, la, te lo la lo, la nos los, las los, las Indirect object translation me, mi le, usted, ti le, el le, ella le nos, nosotros les, ustedes les, ellos

Indirect object first translation is after using no connector (second mode). Second translation is when using either TO or FOR (first mode)

EXERCISE: Replace the objects you can of the sentences you did

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10.4. Actions as objects Actions can also be used as objects, in such case they must generally be placed on either: Pure form with TO, or ing form (gerund)

++

TO -ing

Some exceptions and particular cases must be taken in mind: Movement actions are always followed by -ing Use to + pure form or ing form Pure form without to after: Let, have, make, and, or, but, except, than, why, help -ing after feel like, look forward to, be accustomed to, be used to, limited to, restricted to I study swimming (means manner) I study to swim (means object) Stop -ing = ending of an action Stop to = interrupt (to=in order to) Try -ing = experimenting Try to = effort Mean -ing = involving Mean to = intention Perception actions -ing = for a moment Perception actions to = entirely Cant help -ing = avoid

EXERCISE: Write 20 sentences with actions as objects

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11. TENSES English tenses are one of its advantages; since they are quite easier than Spanish tenses with all their variations. So, with just one of English tenses, it is possible to replace up to three Spanish tenses. That is why it is not hard to understand and use them. Sometimes, comparisons with Spanish could be useful to show how simple English tenses are. It is necessary to remind some basic forms seen in Spanish grammar verbs: Infinitive called here pure form is usually seen preceded by the connector TO and has no specific tense. Gerund called here ing form due to its ending. It is used for progressive tenses and other forms. Past participle called here P.P., is made up in two ways: regular (adding ed), and irregular (memorised). It is used for perfect tenses and other forms.

11.1. Simple Tenses These tenses usually imply habitual actions, not necessarily done immediately at the time of speaking. So, they may become some sort of indefinite tenses. 11.1.1. Simple present Indicates an action done repeatedly in the present but not necessarily now. It is easily made just placing the pure form without TO, after the protagonist (when is plural or I/YOU) as seen in all the examples seen before. E.g. You sing They study These cars go We speak English I sleep Cats drink milk

Plural protagonist or I/YOU

If the protagonist is HE/SHE/IT or any other singular form (except I/YOU), an -s must be added at the end of the verb (remember this -s does not mean plural). E.g. He reads She sees It drinks milk John studies The car goes He teaches English

Singular protagonist I/YOU

See that if verb ends in consonant + y, the ending -ies, is placed instead of -y; and if it ends in -ss, -sh, -ch or -o, the ending -es is added.
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So, a structure for simple present would be:

+ (+ -s if = singular I/YOU) + ()
Notice that for affirmative sentences it is not required to use an auxiliary verb. But for negative and interrogative sentences, either: DO or DOES (depending on protagonist), must be used; DO NOT and DOES NOT are informally contracted DONT and DOESNT respectively. E.g. You dont sing They dont study These cars dont go I dont sleep He doesnt read She doesnt see John doesnt study The car doesnt go Do I sing? Do they study? Do these cars go? Do you sleep? Does he read? Does she see? Does John study? Does the car go?

Plural protagonist or I/YOU

Singular protagonist I/YOU (DOES takes verb -s)

Plural protagonist or I/YOU

Singular protagonist I/YOU (DOES takes verb -s)

For simple questions short answers, follow rule seen in 7.4.2.. E.g. Do you sleep? Does he read? Yes, I do No, I dont Yes, he does No, he doesnt

EXERCISE: Write 20 simple present tense sentences on their affirmative, negative, interrogative and short answer forms
11.1.2. Simple Past Indicates an action done in the past with no relating it to the present. The past form of an action depends on either: the action is regular or irregular. When it is regular, the past form is made just placing the particle -ed at the end of the action (keeping some orthographic rules).
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When it is irregular (no rule), it is necessary to memorise them progressively, but it is not hard. See appendix. So, to make a simple past sentence, it is just necessary to place the past form of the action after any protagonist no matter if it is singular or plural. E.g. You sang They studied These cars went We spoke English I slept Cats drank milk He read She saw It drank milk John studied The car went He taught English

So, a structure for simple past would be: regular + ed irregular memorize + ()

+ past form

Notice that for affirmative sentences it is not required to use an auxiliary verb. But for negative and interrogative sentences DID must be used; DID NOT is informally contracted DIDNT. E.g.

You didnt sing They didnt study These cars didnt go I didnt sleep He didnt read She didnt see John didnt study The car didnt go

DID takes action past form

Did I sing? Did they study? Did these cars go? Did you sleep? Did he read? Did she see? Did John study? Did the car go?

DID takes action past form

For simple questions short answers, follow rule seen in 7.4.2.. E.g.

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Did you sleep? Did he read?

Yes, I did No, I didnt Yes, he did No, he didnt

11.1.2.1 Regular past form pronunciation The particle ed must never be pronounced /ed/. It is generally pronounced /d/, but some final consonant sounds make it difficult; so, depending of final consonant sound pronunciation may be: /t/ When final consonant sound is some sort of /s/ sound (-ss, -sh, -ch or -x), or /p/, /k/, /f/ sounds. E.g. She kissed him I watched T.V. He fixed the car You helped me It stopped here We liked lunch They worked a lot Mary looked pretty Tom cooked last night The boys laughed at her /Id/ /kIst/ /Uatt/ /fIkst/ /jelpt/ /stopt/ /laIkt/ /Urkt/ /lukt/ /kukt/ /lft/

When final consonant sound is /t/ or /d/. E.g. John wanted to sleep I waited for you They counted the money He created it Jane planted a tree She invented that You needed some rest We ended the lesson /UantId/ /UeItId/ /kaUntId/ /krIeitId/ /plntId/ /InventId/ /nidId/ /endId/

EXERCISE: Write 20 simple past tense sentences on their affirmative, negative, interrogative and short answer forms

11.1.3. Simple Future Indicates an action intended to be done in the future, but in an undetermined moment. It actually indicates intention to do it, volition with no specifying when. In English, there are verbal forms only for present and past. Future is expressed using a modal auxiliary verb indicating volition or desire: WILL.
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Simple future is made just placing WILL preceding the action, no matter the protagonist or the action. WILL is informally contracted ll for pronouns. E.g. Youll sing Theyll study These cars will go Well speak English Ill sleep Cats will drink milk Hell read Shell see Itll drink milk John will study The car will go Hell teach English

So, a structure for simple future would be:

+ WILL + + ()
Notice that a modal auxiliary verb WILL is used for affirmative sentences. It must also be used for negative and interrogative sentences. WILL NOT is informally contracted WONT. E.g. You wont sing They wont study These cars wont go I wont sleep He wont read She wont see John wont study He wont read She wont see John wont study The car wont go

For simple questions short answers, follow rule seen in 7.4.2.. E.g. Will you sleep? Will he read? Yes, I will No, I wont Yes, he will No, he wont

EXERCISE: Write 20 simple future tense sentences on their affirmative, negative, interrogative and short answer forms

11.1.4. Future connected to present Since simple future establishes an undetermined future, an alternative form to indicate a definite future connected to present is used. Indicates an action intended to happen in the immediate future as something in process to be done.
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It is made up of an auxiliary form of two parts: TO BE, which changes according to the protagonist; and GOING TO, which is the same for any protagonist an action. Informally, TO BE is contracted as known, and the particle GOING TO may be contracted as GONNA. E.g.

Youre going to sing Theyre going to study These cars are going to go Were gonna speak English Im gonna sleep Cats are gonna drink milk

Hes going to read Shes going to see Its going to drink milk John is gonna study The car is gonna go Hes gonna teach English

So, a structure for this future connected to present would be:

+ TO BE + GOING TO + + ()
See that for this tense, more of one auxiliary verb is used; so, when doing negative and affirmative sentences, use only TO BE and the particle GOING TO remains before the action. E.g. Youre not going to sing Theyre not going to study These cars are not going to go Hes not going to read Im not gonna sleep Shes not gonna see John is not gonna study The car is not gonna go Am I going to sing? Are they going to study? Are these cars going to go? Is he going to read? Are you gonna sleep? Is she gonna see? Is John gonna study? Is the car gonna go?

Use contraction GONNA only informally

Use contraction GONNA only informally

For simple questions short answers, follow rule seen in 7.4.2., in this case use only TO BE as auxiliary. E.g.

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55

Are you going to sleep? Is he going to read?

Yes, I am No, I am not Yes, he is No, he isnt

EXERCISE: Write 20 future connected to present sentences on their affirmative, negative, interrogative and short answer forms

11.1.5. Past cancelled The form TO BE + GOING TO, may express an action which was not carried out if TO BE is used in past tense. E.g.

I was going to sleep They were going to read He wasnt going to sing You werent going to see Was she going to study? Were we going to go? EXERCISE: Write 20 past cancelled sentences on their affirmative, negative,

interrogative and short answer forms

11.2. Progressive tenses These tenses receive this name as they indicate an action in progress at the reference time, an action done simultaneously with the moment given expressing immediateness but incompleteness. Progressive tenses use TO BE as auxiliary and the gerund, -ing form, for the principal action. 11.2.1 Present progressive Present progressive refers to an action being done simultaneously with the time of speaking, the reference time is supposed to be now. Verb TO BE is applied on its present forms AM, IS, ARE as auxiliary according to the protagonist, and the particle ing is placed at the end of the principal action regarding some orthographic rules. E.g. I am studying English Tom is drinking milk You are reading this book Jane is sleeping We are going home
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Shes singing Hes speaking English Im teaching you Theyre seeing the car Youre running

TO BE may be contracted as known

So, a structure for present progressive would be:

+ AM/IS/ARE + -ING + ()
See that when using the action to run, the final n is doubled. It is due to an orthographic rule applied when a word ends in one consonant preceded by one stressed vowel: consonant-vowel-consonant. Final consonant is doubled when placing any particle (suffix*). E.g. Youre running Shes getting tired Hes hitting the ball Im swimming Were putting it Theyre sitting on the chair NOTE: Die - dying Lie - lying

For negative and interrogative sentences and short answers, TO BE is used as seen. E.g. Shes not singing Theyre not seeing the car Youre not running Are you swimming? Is he hitting the ball? Are you going home? Yes, I am No, I am not Yes, he is No, he isnt Yes, we are No, we arent

EXERCISE: Write 20 present progressive tense sentences on their affirmative, negative, interrogative and short answer forms

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11.2.2. Past progressive Indicates an action being done simultaneously with a reference action or moment in the past. So, a past complement should be used. Verb TO BE is applied on its past forms WAS, WERE as auxiliary according to the protagonist, and the particle ing is placed at the end of the principal action regarding some orthographic rules. E.g. I was studying English yesterday Tom was drinking milk last night You were reading this book last week Jane was sleeping when John went to visit her We were going home at 9 oclock She was singing before I saw her He was speaking English last year I was teaching you when you were in class They were seeing the car this morning You were running on Tuesday

So, a structure for past progressive would be:

+ WAS/WERE + -ING + () + past compl.

For negative and interrogative sentences and short answers, the same rules of present progressive are followed. E.g.

She wasnt singing before I saw her They werent seeing the car this morning You werent running on Tuesday Were you swimming? Was he hitting the ball? Were you going home? Yes, I was No, I wasnt Yes, he was No, he wasnt Yes, we were No, we werent

EXERCISE: Write 20 past progressive tense sentences on their affirmative, negative, interrogative and short answer forms

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11.2.3. Future progressive This tense indicates an action being done simultaneously with a reference action or moment in the future. So, a future time complement or a simple present sentence (equivalent to Spanish presente subjuntivo) should be used. Verb TO BE is applied on its future form WILL BE as auxiliary for any protagonist, and the particle ing is placed at the end of the principal action regarding some orthographic rules. E.g. Ill be studying English tomorrow Tom will be drinking milk tonight Youll be reading this book next week Jane will be sleeping when John goes to visit her Well be going home at 9 oclock Shell be singing after I see her Hell be speaking English next year Ill be teaching you when you are in class Theyll be seeing the car this afternoon Youll be running on Tuesday So, a structure for future progressive would be:

+ WILL BE + -ING + () +

Future time complement S. present sentence

For negative and interrogative sentences and short answers, the same rules of present progressive are followed. E.g. She wont be singing after I see her They wont be seeing the car this afternoon You wont be running on Tuesday Will you be swimming? Will he be hitting the ball? Will you be going home? Yes, I will No, I wont Yes, he will No, he wont Yes, we will No, we wont

EXERCISE: Write 20 future progressive tense sentences on their affirmative, negative, interrogative and short answer forms

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11.3. Perfect tenses These tenses indicate perfect actions, meaning as perfect completed actions (finished concluded). So, by the time they are referred, they may seem some sort of past actions. Perfect tenses use HAVE as auxiliary verb, and the past participle, P.P. form for the principal action. P.P. form is made like past form: regular (-ed) or irregular (memorise). See appendix. When HAVE is used as auxiliary, it loses its possessive meaning, changing it by a concluding meaning. 11.3.1. Present perfect This tense indicates a connection between past and present, an action starting in the past and intended to continue. It is also used to indicate a recent action. HAVE is used on its present forms HAVE, HAS as auxiliary according to the protagonist. Informally they can be contracted VE and S respectively for pronouns. E.g. Ive studied for two months Weve spoken English very good Men have invented many things Hes gone there once Shes slept during twelve hours Charles has drunk a lot of water Plural protagonist or I/YOU Singular protagonist I/YOU

So, a structure for present perfect would be:

+ HAVE/HAS + P.P. + ()
For negative and interrogative sentences use HAVE/HAS as auxiliary as well. When negative, the contractions HAVENT and HASNT may be used. E.g. I havent studied for two months We havent spoken English very well Men havent invented many things He hasnt gone there once She hasnt slept during twelve hours Charles hasnt drunk a lot of water Have you studied for two months ? Have you spoken English very good ? Have men invented many things ? Has he gone there once ? Has she slept during twelve hours ? Has Charles drunk a lot of water ?
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For simple questions short answers, follow rule seen in 7.4.2., in this case use HAVE/HAS as auxiliary. E.g.

Have you studied for two months ? Has she slept during twelve hours ?

Yes, I have No, I havent Yes, she has No, she hasnt

EXERCISE: Write 20 present perfect tense sentences on their affirmative, negative, interrogative and short answer forms

11.3.2 Past perfect This tense indicates an action in past, concluded before another action in past, before it. HAVE is used on its past form HAD as auxiliary. Informally it can be contracted as D for pronouns. E.g.

Id studied for two months when I met her Wed spoken English very good before we went to England Men had invented many things by 1910 Hed gone there once since he bought the car Shed slept during twelve hours when she woke up Charles had drunk a lot of water yesterday

Therefore, a structure for past perfect would be:

+ HAD + P.P. + () + past complement

For negative and interrogative sentences use HAD as auxiliary as well. When negative, the contraction HADNT may be used. E.g. I hadnt studied for two months when I met her We hadnt spoken English before we went to England Men hadnt invented many things by 1910 He hadnt gone there once since he bought the car She hadnt slept during twelve hours when she woke up Charles hadnt drunk a lot of water yesterday
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Had you studied for two months when you met her ? Had you spoken English before you went to England ? Had men invented many things by 1910 ? Had he gone there once since he bought the car ? Had she slept during twelve hours when she woke up ? Had Charles drunk a lot of water yesterday ?

For simple questions short answers, follow rule seen in 7.4.2., in this case use HAD as auxiliary. E.g.

Had you studied for two months when you met her ? Yes, I had No, I hadnt Had she slept during twelve hours when she woke up ? Yes, she had No, she hadnt

EXERCISE: Write 20 past perfect tense sentences on their affirmative, negative, interrogative and short answer forms
11.3.3. Future perfect This tense indicates an action in future concluded before another action in future. HAVE is used on its future form WILL HAVE as auxiliary. Informally it can be contracted as LL HAVE. If a sentence is given as complement, it must be done in simple present, as this is the equivalent to Spanish presente subjuntivo. E.g. Ill have studied for two months when I meet her Well have spoken English before we go to England Men will have invented many things by 2050 Hell have gone there once since he buys the car Shell have slept during twelve hours when she wakes up Charles will have drunk a lot of water tomorrow Therefore, a structure for future perfect would be:

+ WILL HAVE + P.P. + () +

Future time complement Simple present sentence

For negative and interrogative sentences, use only WILL as auxiliary. When negative, the contraction WONT may be used. E.g.

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I wont have studied for two months when I meet her We wont have spoken English before we go to England Men wont have invented many things by 2050 He wont have gone there once since he buys the car She wont have slept for twelve hours when she wakes up Charles wont have drunk a lot of water tomorrow

Will you have studied for two months when you meet her ? Will you have spoken English before you go to England ? Will men have invented many things by 2050 ? Will he have gone there once since he buys the car ? Will she have slept for twelve hours when she wakes up ? Will Charles have drunk a lot of water tomorrow ? For simple questions short answers, follow rule seen in 7.4.2., in this case use WILL as auxiliary. E.g. Will you have studied for two months when you met her ? Yes, I will No, I wont Will she have slept for twelve hours when she woke up ? Yes, she will No, she wont

EXERCISE: Write 20 future perfect tense sentences on their affirmative, negative, interrogative and short answer forms

11.4. Perfect progressive tenses As seen, these tenses are a combination of perfect and progressive tenses; so, they are intended to mean an action starting before and progressing at the reference time but specially emphasising on its time. Since these tenses approach to movement in time, it is necessary to use some sort of time complement indicating time quantity or initial point. HAVE is used as auxiliary on its different forms, followed of BEEN (to be P.P. form), and the -ing form for the principal action. 11.4.1. Present perfect progressive This tense indicates the duration or beginning of an action starting the past and continuing now. HAVE is used on its present forms HAVE, HAS as auxiliary according to the protagonist for the perfect part, and BEEN (TO BE P.P. form) as auxiliary followed by the principal
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action ing form for the progressive part. Informally HAVE and HAS can be contracted VE and S respectively.

Hes been living there for five years Ive been studying English since 1990 Tom has been working here during fifteen years Shes been exercising a lot after she got sick Youve been sleeping twelve hours ago Sheila has been speaking English for ten years

So, a structure for present perfect progressive would be:

+ HAVE/HAS + BEEN + -ING + () +

Duration Initial point

For negative and interrogative sentences use HAVE/HAS as auxiliary as well. When negative, the contractions HAVENT and HASNT may be used. E.g. He hasnt been living there for five years I havent been studying English since 1990 Tom hasnt been working here during fifteen years She hasnt been exercising a lot after she got sick You havent been sleeping twelve hours ago Sheila hasnt been speaking English for ten years

Has he been living there for five years ? Have you been studying English since 1990 ? Has Tom been working here during fifteen years ? Has she been exercising a lot after she got sick ? Have you been sleeping twelve hours ago ? Has Sheila been speaking English for ten years ? For simple questions short answers, follow rule seen in 7.4.2., in this case use HAVE/HAS as auxiliary. E.g.

Have you been studying English since 1990 ? Has he been living there for five years ?

Yes, I have No, I havent Yes, he has No, he hasnt

EXERCISE: Write 20 present perfect progressive tense sentences on their affirmative,

negative, interrogative and short answer forms

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11.4.2. Past perfect progressive This tense indicates the duration or beginning of an action starting the past and continuing during another action or moment in past. So, besides duration or beginning a time complement must be used. HAVE is used on its past form HAD as auxiliary for the perfect part, and BEEN (TO BE P.P. form) as auxiliary followed by the principal action ing form for the progressive part. Informally HAD can be contracted D. Hed been living there for five years in 2000 Id been studying English since 1990 when I went to USA Tom had been working here during fifteen years in May Shed been exercising a lot after she got sick until she quit Youd been sleeping twelve hours ago when I arrived Sheila had been speaking English for ten years in 2003 So, a structure for past perfect progressive would be:

+ HAD + BEEN + -ING + () + point Initial comp.

Duration

+ past

For negative and interrogative sentences use HAD as auxiliary as well. When negative, the contraction HADNT may be used. E.g. He hadnt been living there for five years in 2000 I hadnt been studying English since 1990 when I went to USA Tom hadnt been working here during fifteen years in May She hadnt been exercising a lot after she got sick until she quit You hadnt been sleeping twelve hours ago when I arrived Sheila hadnt been speaking English for ten years in 2003 Had he been living there for five years in 2000 ? Had you been studying English since 1990 when I went to USA ? Had Tom been working here during fifteen years in May ? Had she been exercising a lot after she got sick until she quit ? Had you been sleeping twelve hours ago when I arrived ? Had Sheila been speaking English for ten years in 2003 ? For simple questions short answers, follow rule seen in 7.4.2., in this case use HAD as auxiliary. E.g.

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Had you been studying English since 1990 when you went to USA? Yes, I had No, I hadnt Had he been living there for five years in 2000 ? Yes, he had No, he hadnt

EXERCISE: Write 20 past perfect progressive tense sentences on their affirmative, negative, interrogative and short answer forms

11.4.3. Future perfect progressive This tense indicates the duration or beginning of an action starting the past and continuing another action or moment in future. So, besides duration or beginning a time complement must be used. HAVE is used on its future form WILL HAVE for the perfect part, and BEEN (TO BE P.P. form) as auxiliary followed by the principal action ing form for the progressive part. Informally WILL HAVE can be contracted LL HAVE. Hell have been living there for five years in 2009 Ill have been studying English since 1990 when I go to USA Tom will have been working here during fifteen years in May Shell have been exercising a lot after she got sick until she quits Youll have been sleeping twelve hours ago when I arrive Sheila will have been speaking English for ten years in 2014 So, a structure for future perfect progressive would be:

WILL HAVE + BEEN + -ING + () + +

Duration + Future time complement Initial point S. Present sentence

For negative and interrogative sentences use only WILL as auxiliary. When negative, the contraction WONT may be used. E.g. He wont have been living there for five years in 2009 I wont have been studying English since 1990 when I go to USA Tom wont have been working here during fifteen years in May She wont have been exercising a lot after she got sick until she quits You wont have been sleeping twelve hours ago when I arrive Sheila wont have been speaking English for ten years in 2014
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Will he have been living there for five years in 2009? Will you have been studying English since 1990 when you go to USA? Will Tom have been working here during fifteen years in May? Will she have been exercising a lot after she got sick until she quits? Will you have been sleeping twelve hours ago when I arrive? Will Sheila have been speaking English for ten years in 2014? For simple questions short answers, follow rule seen in 7.4.2., in this case use WILL as auxiliary. E.g. Will you have been studying English since 1990 when you go to USA? Yes, I will No, I wont Will he have been living there for five years in 2009? Yes, he will No, he wont

EXERCISE: Write 20 future perfect progressive tense sentences on their affirmative, negative, interrogative and short answer forms
11.5. Table of tenses The following are some examples of actions (regular/irregular) presented in every tense form seen with different protagonists (singular/plural): He + play Present Past Future Simple plays played will play Progressive is playing was playing will be playing Perfect Perfect progressive

Future connected to present Past cancelled

has played has been playing had played had been playing will have will have been played playing is going to play was going to play

You + play Present Past Future

Simple play played will play

Progressive

Perfect

Perfect progressive

are playing have played have been playing were playing had played had been playing will be playing will have will have been played playing Future connected to present are going to play Past cancelled were going to play
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He + write Present Past Future

Simple writes wrote will write

Progressive is writing was writing will be writing

Perfect

Perfect progressive

Future connected to present Past cancelled

has written has been writing had written had been writing will have will have been written writing is going to write was going to write

You + write Present Past Future

Simple write wrote will write

Progressive are writing were writing will be writing

Perfect

Perfect progressive

Future connected to present Past cancelled

have written have been writing had written had been writing will have will have been written writing are going to write were going to write

EXERCISE: Study and learn tenses

12. WH-QUESTIONS According to what was explained before, these questions ask for precise information, they cannot be answered as simple questions (yes/no). Regarding with explanations given in chapters 6., 7.3.2., and 7.4.3.; this kind of questions becomes worthy of reviewing it besides the need of practising it with the new auxiliaries and actions seen. Remember the structure seen to make them up and answer them:

Wh-exp. + aux. + + + () ?

Having in mind that there are now more possibilities to construct them, a table could be useful:
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Wh-exp. What Where When etc.

Auxiliary verb BE: am, is, are. was, were. DO: do, does. did. WILL

Protagonist PRONOUN: I you he, she, it we they SOMETHING: Mary The students My friend

Action -ING FORM: studying going to study PURE FORM: study PURE FORM: study be studying have been studying P.P. FORM: studied been studying

Complement () OBJECT: English the lesson PLACE: at home at school TIME: today on Monday MANNER: easily fast

HAVE: have, has. had

So, with this table it will be easy to create them according to the structure. E.g. Wh-exp. What Where When Auxiliary verb am does have Protagonist I she they Action studying study been studying complement () at home? on Monday? English?

In the same way, to answer them it is necessary to follow the structure and the complements order required. E.g. You are studying English at home She studies at school on Monday They have been studying English today

However, it is necessary to have a better and more detailed explanation of each component and a detailed, complete list of wh-expressions as follows:

EXERCISE: Study and learn wh-questions mechanics

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12.1. Wh-expressions It is highly advisable not to memorise the by translation but by the complements they ask for: What? Who? Where? How? Whatlike? When? What time? How long? How old? Whose (possession)? Why? How much (substance)? How many (plural)? How often? How (description)? What type of (something)? What kind of (something)? What sort of (something)? What (something)? Which (something)? something / (if = DO) action persons name or designation place description/ (if = TO BE) state characteristic time AT + hour FOR/DURING + duration # + YEARS OLD possessive form BECAUSE + sentence reason FOR + -ing form TO + pure form measurement + OF + substance # + plural adverb of frequency measurement + OF + description type + something Specific something

EXERCISE: Study and learn wh-expressions answers

12.1.1. What This expression asks for something (person, animal, thing or idea), whenever the principal action in the question is not a form of the action TO DO (do, doing, done, going to do or been doing). When this happens, this expression asks for an action instead of TO DO form. When asking for something it is, obviously, necessary to use an action possibly done to something - objective-. E.g.
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What? Something

if = DO

What? action

What are you reading? (asking for something) Im reading a magazine What are you doing? (asking for an action) Im reading What did you read? (asking for something) I read a magazine What did you do? (asking for an action) I read What will you read? (asking for something) Ill read a magazine What will you do? (asking for an action) Ill read What have you read? (asking for something) Ive read a magazine What have you done? (asking for an action) Ive read

EXERCISE: Write 20 wh-questions with WHAT and answer them

12.1.2. Who This expression asks for a persons name or designation, and the principal action must be logically used (possibly done to somebody -objective-, or connected with a preposition as seen in 12.18.). E.g.

Who? persons name or designation

Who is she seeing right now? Shes seeing John right now Who does Tom call every morning? Tom calls Mary every morning Who will you invite to the party tomorrow? Ill invite my friends to the party tomorrow Who has he helped? Hes helped everybody

EXERCISE: Write 20 wh-questions with WHO and answer them

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12.1.3. Where This expression asks for a specific place expressed with an adverb of place: preposition + something or some expressions that are places by themselves (here, there, downtown, upstairs, downstairs, etc.). There is no restriction for principal actions. E.g.

Where? place
Where am I going to go next year? Youre going to go to Liverpool next year Where do they practice English? They practice English at work Where will he be working in May? Hell be working in USA in May Where had you been yesterday? Id been here yesterday

EXERCISE: Write 20 wh-questions with WHERE and answer them

12.1.4. How This expression asks for a description depending on the principal action. If it is any TO BE form, the description must specifically be a state describing the protagonist. Otherwise, if it is different from TO BE, it could be either, a state or a characteristic, describing now the principal action. E.g.

How? description
How was he driving? He was driving fast How did she speak? She spoke fluently How will you make it? Ill make it patiently How have I written? Youve written correctly

if = TO BE How? state

EXERCISE: Write 20 wh-questions with HOW and answer them

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12.1.5. Whatlike This expression asks for a description specifically a characteristic, whenever describing the protagonist; so, actions presenting the concept of being must be used like: LOOK, SEEM, APPEAR, BECOME, REMAIN, GET, GROW, FEEL, SOUND, TASTE, SMELL, ACT, STAY, etc. E.g.

What...like? characteristic
What am I looking like? Youre looking great What does she feel like? She feels loved What will he get like? Hell get fat What had it tasted like before? Itd tasted delicious before

EXERCISE: Write 20 wh-questions with WHAT...LIKE and answer them

12.1.6. When This expression asks for the moment of an action expressed with an adverb of time: preposition + time, or time represented with no preposition (now, yesterday, next week, everyday, etc.). There is no restriction for principal actions. E.g.

When? time
When are you going to travel? Im going to travel next summer When do Anne and Mark talk on the phone? They talk on the phone every night When will she be living in Seattle? Shell be living in Seattle for Christmas When has Dave been there? Hes been there in April and June

EXERCISE: Write 20 wh-questions with WHEN and answer them

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12.1.7. What time This expression asks for a specific hour expressed mostly using the preposition AT followed by any representation of an hour (3 p.m., 7 oclock, noon, lunch, dusk, etc.). There is no restriction for principal actions. E.g.

What time? at + hour

What time is your father at work every morning? Hes at work at 7 a.m. every morning What time did the teacher arrive to school? He arrived to school at 8 oclock What time will you have been writing for two hours? Ill have been writing for two hours at midnight What time have they finished eating? Theyve finished eating at noon

EXERCISE: Write 20 wh-questions with WHAT TIME and answer them

12.1.8. How long This expression asks for the duration of an action expressed in quantity of time and presented with prepositions like FOR or DURING. There is no restriction for principal actions. E.g.

How long? For/during + duration

How long was it going to be here? It was going to be here for two weeks How long does she sleep at night? She sleeps during six hours at night How long will Peter stay in Egypt? Hell stay in Egypt for one year How long had we been talking yesterday? Wed been talking during four hours yesterday

EXERCISE: Write 20 wh-questions with HOW LONG and answer them

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12.1.9. How old This expression is the most used example of the generalised wh-expression seen later in 12.1.15.. It asks for age expressed in measure mostly with a quantity followed by YEARS OLD. Principal action must be logically used to avoid lack of sense. E.g.

How old? # years old

How old were you studying at school? I was studying at school 7 years old How old does she look? She looks 25 years old How old will he live in Scotland? Hell live in Scotland 50 years old How old has Helen had her children? Shes had their children 30 and 35 years old EXERCISE: Write 20 wh-questions with HOW OLD and answer them

12.1.10. Whose This expression asks for any kind of possessive complement: adjectives, pronouns or genitive form. When it has not already been mentioned, possession must follow this expression becoming part of it. Such possession comes to be an object; so, objective actions should be used. E.g.

Whose (possession)? Possessive form

Whose book is Bill reading now? Hes reading his book Whose teacher do they invite to the promotion? They invite theirs Whose life will she be writing about? Shell be writing about Georges life Whose horse had the jockey ridden for the race? Hed ridden the clubs EXERCISE: Write 20 wh-questions with WHOSE and answer them

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12.1.11. Why This expression asks for the reason of the principal action; so, to provide the explanation as a sentence use mostly the connection BECAUSE, or as an action use FOR followed by the ing form or TO followed by the pure form. E.g. Because + sentence Why? For + -ing form To + pure form Why are you reading this? Im reading this because I want to learn more Im reading this for learning more Im reading this to learn more Why does she sleep? She sleeps because she needs to rest She sleeps for resting She sleeps to rest Why will he buy that book? Hell buy that book because he wants to read it Hell buy that book for reading it Hell buy that book to read it Why have they worked so much? Theyve worked so much because they want to buy a car Theyve worked so much for buying a car Theyve worked so much to buy a car

EXERCISE: Write 20 wh-questions with WHY and answer them

12.1.12. How much This expression asks for quantity of a substance expressed in any kind of measurement. When such substance is not obvious, it must follow the wh-expression becoming part of it. Such substance comes to be an object; so, objective* actions should be used. E.g.

How much (substance)? measurement + OF + substance

How much cheese was she buying this morning? She was buying two pounds of cheese this morning How much did it cost? It cost $200 How much painting will he use? Hell use 4 gallons of painting How much coffee has the teacher drunk today? Hes drunk 4 cups of coffee today

EXERCISE: Write 20 wh-questions with HOW MUCH and answer them

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12.1.13. How many This expression asks for quantity of elements expressed in numbers. The elements in plural form must follow the expression becoming part of it. Such plural comes to be an object; so, objective actions should be used. E.g.

How many (plural)? # + plural

How many places are we going to visit? Were going to visit eight places How many books do you read per year? I read twelve books per year How many languages will she speak in twenty years? Shell speak five languages in twenty years How many people had he seen on Tuesday? Hed seen sixty people on Tuesday

EXERCISE: Write 20 wh-questions with HOW MANY and answer them

12.1.14. How often This expression asks for an adverb of frequency (14). See they must be placed in a special position. There is no restriction for principal actions. E.g.

How often? Adverb of frequency

How often is she going to visit him? She is occasionally going to visit him How often does Michael do exercise? He frequently does exercise How often will you practice English? Ill always practice English How often have they gone abroad? Theyve seldom gone abroad

EXERCISE: Write 20 wh-questions with HOW OFTEN and answer them

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12.1.15. How (description) This expression asks for any kind of measurement of the description given: precise (numerical) or imprecise (degree). To communicate degree, the following intensifiers can be used: not at all, hardly, a bit, a little, quite, very, really, too, a lot, so, enough, etc. The principal action must be described with the description given to avoid lack of sense. E.g.

How (description)? measurement + description

How high is it flying? Its flying 30000 feet high How fast did she drive the car? She drove the car 150-mph fast How tired will Charles get tomorrow? Hell get really tired How efficient has Jane been working lately? Shes been working quite efficient lately

EXERCISE: Write 20 wh-questions with HOW (DESCRIPTION) and answer them

12.1.16. What type of This expression asks for any type of a given something, which must follow the expression becoming part of it. Besides WHAT TYPE OF, WHAT KIND OF and WHAT SORT OF may be used. Such something comes to be an object; so, objective actions should be used. E.g.

What type of What kind of What sort of

(something)? type + something

What kind of book were you reading? I was reading a sci-fi book What sort of cities do you prefer? I prefer large cities What type of job will she look for? Shell look for an executive job What kind of people had he been helping? Hed been helping poor people

EXERCISE: Write 20 wh-questions with WHAT TYPE OF and answer them

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12.1.17. What (something) This expression asks for any kind of specification of a given something, which must follow the expression becoming part of it. Do not confuse the idea of specification with the idea of type seen before. According to this, the specific article THE, can be used. Such something comes to be an object; so, objective actions should be used. E.g.

What (something)?

something (specification)

What colour is it? Its black What car does Tom like the best? Tom likes the Rolls Royce the best What shirt will you put on? Ill put on the blue shirt What career have they chosen? Theyve chosen laws

EXERCISE: Write 20 wh-questions with WHAT (SOMETHING) and answer them

12.1.18. Which (something) This expression is an equivalent to the last one, and may be used emphasising in the specification by any description of the given something, which also must follow the expression becoming part of it. As seen, the specific article THE, can be used. Such something also comes to be an object; so, objective actions should be used. E.g.

Which (something)?

something (specification)

Which girl is he dating? Hes dating the girl that he met last year Which house did he live in? He lived in the house that is on the corner Which computer will Jane buy? Jane will buy the computer that she saw in the store Which countries has your family visited? My family has visited United Kingdom and United States

EXERCISE: Write 20 wh-questions with WHICH (SOMETHING) and answer them

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12.2. Auxiliary verbs This is the most useful particle of wh-questions since it works as the principal guide to understand the question and organise the answer. In this position only one word can be placed, and if it is necessary to employ more words as auxiliary verbs, they must be placed with the principal action. Auxiliaries are also important as they indicate tense, principal action form, and give an idea of the protagonist form as follows:

12.2.1. BE (am, is, are, was, were) It is used as auxiliary when it is also the principal action in simple present and simple past. Used as well as auxiliary for progressive tenses in present and past, and for future connected to present and past cancelled GOING TO (used also for 17. passive voice). Indicates that the first action in the principal action position must take its ing form (or P.P form in 17. passive voice) when present. Protagonist must fit logically depending on its form. E.g. Where was he yesterday? He was at home What is she doing there? Shes working How many places are you going to visit next year? Im going to visit eight places Why were they going to do that? They were going to do that because they wanted to do it

EXERCISE: Write 20 wh-questions with TO BE as auxiliary verb and answer them

12.2.2. DO (do, does, did) It is used as an auxiliary verb for simple present and past tenses, when TO BE is not involved. Indicates that the principal action in the wh-question must be in pure form. It is the only auxiliary not used in the affirmative answer, but indicates if principal action goes in pure or past form, or takes a final s, if DO, DID or DOES are used respectively. Protagonist must fit logically depending on its form. E.g.

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Which food do you like the best? I like pizza the best Where did she go last vacation? She went to Europe What does Jim study everyday? He studies music Who do they live with? They live with their parents

EXERCISE: Write 20 wh-questions with DO (do, does, did) as auxiliary verb and answer them
12.2.3. HAVE (have, has, had) It is used as an auxiliary verb for perfect present and past tenses. Indicates that the first action in the principal action position must take its P.P. form. Protagonist must fit logically depending on its form. E.g. What time have you woken up this week? Ive woke up at 6 a.m. this week How long has Dave been teaching arts? Hes been teaching arts for ten years What kind of car had she bought last year? Shed bought a family car How much have they learnt? Theyve learnt a lot

EXERCISE: Write 20 wh-questions with HAVE (have, has, had) as auxiliary verb and answer them
12.2.4. WILL (modal auxiliary verb) It is used as an auxiliary verb for future tenses. Indicates that the first action in the principal action position must take its pure form, as seen in 18. Modal auxiliary verbs. It fits to any protagonist. E.g. Whose house will it be? Itll be their house What will she look like? Shell look gorgeous How high will it be flying? Itll be flying very high When will they have finished it? Theyll have finished it by Wednesday

EXERCISE: Write 20 wh-questions with WILL as auxiliary verb and answer them
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12.3. Protagonists The protagonist (also called subject) may be represented as either, something or a pronoun; so, there are many possibilities, restricted only by the auxiliary verb used:

Am Is, does, has Are Do, have Did, had, will

I any singular I, you any plural any plural + I, you no restriction

Generally, when the protagonist is something, it takes an article (except for proper names). It can also be some sort of something phrase (something made of two or more words). E.g.

What am I going to do? Youre going to do the homework What does a doctor do? A doctor heals people Where is the Vatican City located? Its located near from Rome What does a listening comprehension test consist on? It consists on questions about a spoken dialogue

EXERCISE: Write 20 wh-questions with different protagonists and answer them

12.4. Principal action

There must be only one principal action, but there may be one or more auxiliary verbs; so, in this case there may be more than one word in the third position of wh-questions, depending on the tense referred to. The action or actions in this position are restricted by the wh-expression used, considering making sense whenever the question is asked. The auxiliary as seen in 12.2 restricts the form of the action. E.g.

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Auxiliary verb BE

Action form -ing form going to + -ing Pure form P.P. form p.p. form been + -ing Pure form be + -ing have + p.p. form have + been + -ing

DO HAVE

WILL

What are you doing? Im reading Where was she going to work? She was going to work in New York Why did they come so late? They came so late because there was a traffic jam Who has the doctor examined? Hes examined Mrs. Watson How long have we been travelling? Weve been travelling during five years When will Mary and John get married? Theyll get married next month What time will she be sleeping? Shell be sleeping at midnight How long will James have been working at noon? Hell have been working for six hours at noon

EXERCISE: Write 20 nouns of every kind (person, animal, thing, and idea)
12.5. Complements Complements are an optional part of wh-questions, sometimes necessary to make sense or to fit some tenses. They must be logically used and can be classified in four different groups which, if present together must keep a special order: object manner place time In movement sentences
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12.5.1. Objects See details for this kind of complement in 10. Objects. This complement is required when the principal action is an objective action* and does not convey a complete meaning by itself. This complement can never be separated from the principal action; so, it follows it when present, and can be replaced by an objective pronoun. E.g. Where did she put the flowers? She put them on the table Why have you broken the glass? Ive broken it because I havent been careful enough When will they bring the gifts? Theyll bring them tomorrow How does he cut the paper? He cuts it carefully

EXERCISE: Write 20 wh-questions with objects as complements and answer them

12.5.2. Manner See details of this kind of complement in 5.1.6. Adverbs. As seen, this kind of complement describes the manner how the action is done. So, descriptions are mostly used added the final particle ly to become adverbs. Another way to express manner is with adverb phrases, made up of a preposition of manner (by, like, as, with, without) followed by something. Intensifiers as: not at all, hardly, a bit, a little, quite, very, really, too, a lot, so, enough, etc., can also be used. E.g. Why are they talking so happily? Theyre talking so happily because theyre friends How often does she walk with you? She barely walks with me Why do you speak like him? I speak like him because hes my brother How often does she get tired by exercising? She seldom gets tired by exercising

EXERCISE: Write 20 wh-questions with Manner as complement and answer them

12.5.3. Place See details of this kind of complement in 5.1.6. Adverbs. As seen, this kind of complement describes the place where the action is done. This complement is generally optional, but is sometimes required in wh-questions asking for any form of time, to grant logical sense.
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As seen before, a specific place can be expressed with an adverb of place: preposition + something or some expressions that are places by themselves (here, there, downtown, upstairs, downstairs, etc.). What is he going to do beyond the neighbourhood? Hes going to do exercise Who did they visit in England? They visited their friends in England When will you go to USA? Ill go to USA next year How long have we been working here? Weve been working here nine years ago

EXERCISE: Write 20 wh-questions with places as complements and answer them

12.5.4. Time See details of this kind of complement in 5.1.6. Adverbs. As seen, this kind of complement describes the time when the action is done. This complement is generally optional as well, but is required in wh-questions on a few particular tenses, to grant logical sense. As seen before, the moment of an action can be expressed with an adverb of time: preposition + time, or time represented with no preposition (now, yesterday, next week, everyday, etc.). E.g. How much light does he need when he is drawing? He needs a lot of light when he is drawing Which book were you reading last week? I was reading Romeo and Juliet last week How old will she be in 2020? Shell be 40 years old in 2020 Where have they lived lately? Theyve lived near Seattle lately

EXERCISE: Write 20 wh-questions with time as complement and answer them

12.6. Asking for protagonist Considering wh-questions seen, every example given indicated a protagonist; however, in the situation the protagonist is unknown and it is necessary to find it out, or it is already specified in the wh-expression, the structure seen must change. If no protagonist is present, it is not possible to determine the proper auxiliary verb for some tenses; so, following the structure seen, when asking for the protagonist or any kind of information about it, the structure would be:

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Wh-expression +

In present tenses conjugated for singular protagonist

is a

+ () ?

Likewise, the answer cannot be given according to the structure seen. It keeps the same order, changing only the wh-expression by the information it asks for. E.g. What car runs the fastest of all those? The McLaren runs the fastest of all those Who studies with you? Mike and Juliet study with me Whose teacher will explain it? Your teacher will explain it How much coffee makes you sleep? Two cups of coffee make sleep How many students will come to class? Nine students will come to class What type of people help the other people? Good people help the other people Which book has been his favourite? A brief history of time has been his favourite

EXERCISE: Write 20 wh-questions asking for protagonist and answer them

12.7. Wh-questions with prepositions Sometimes, the information asked by wh-expressions is connected to the principal action using prepositions (connectors), which in old or very formal language, come before wh-expressions, but, in common or informal language always follow the action. E.g. What does it serve for? It serves for repairing appliances Where did she come from? She came from Scotland Who are they talking about? They are talking about Sarah How many friends will you go with? Ill go with three friends

EXERCISE: Write 20 wh-questions with prepositions and answer them

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13. INDICATING EXISTENCE

A special arrangement is used to express the existence of something:

There + TO BE + something + ()
The word THERE is applied as a meaningless protagonist, followed by any form of TO BE, acquiring so, the sense of being, to show the existence of something. The particle THERE may also be used with other verbs implying being (exist, live, survive, subsist).

13.1. Simple forms In affirmative and negative sentences, the particle THERE always comes first than TO BE form. The simple forms are the most commonly used, and are: THERE IS present existence of singular something THERE ARE present existence of something plural THERE WAS past existence of something singular THERE WERE past existence of something plural THERE WILL BE future existence of any something As indicated above, what is referred as existent (something), follows in order. E.g. There is a great opportunity to learn English There are many people in the party There was an old house on the corner There were three options to choose There will be a meeting tomorrow Negative and interrogative forms are made as usual, using THERE as if it were a normal protagonist. E.g. There is not time to lose There are not many apples in the basket There wasnt a building there last year There werent too many options There wont be a party tonight

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Is there a great opportunity to learn English? Yes, there is Are there many apples in the basket? No, there arent Was there an old house on the corner? Yes, there was Were there too many options? No, there werent Will there be a meeting tomorrow? Yes, there will

EXERCISE: Write 20 sentences indicating existence in simple forms

13.2. Tenses The last ones are the most widely used forms of this indication of existence. However, some other forms made in other tenses (and with modal auxiliary verbs 18.) can also be used: THERE IS GOING TO BE future-present existence of singular something THERE ARE GOING TO BE future-present existence of plural something THERE HAS BEEN present perfect existence of singular something THERE HAVE BEEN present perfect existence of plural something Forms in other tenses are seldom used; so, besides the simple forms seen, these are also used. E.g. There is going to be a new shopping mall in town There are not going to be problems for you to do that There has been a great advance in technology lately Have there been many people here? Yes, there have / No, there havent

EXERCISE: Write 20 sentences indicating existence in other tenses

13.3. Wh-questions indicating existence When it is necessary to use this form to ask wh-questions, the same structure is used, considering that now the particle THERE occupies the position of a protagonist. The wh-expression used must fit logically to avoid lack of sense. E.g.

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What is there in the box? There are toys in the box Where are there books to read? There are books to read in the library When was there a celebration here? There was a celebration here on Wednesday How long were there dinosaurs on earth? There were dinosaurs on earth for many million years Why will there be more people at work? There will be more people at work to help us How much meat is there going to be to eat? There is going to be a lot of meat to eat How many world wars have there been? There have been two world wars

EXERCISE: Write 20 wh-questions indicating existence and answer them

14. ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY As seen in 5.1.6. Adverbs., the adverbs of frequency describe how often an action is carried out, its occurrence. They refer to a specific degree of regularity, measured with accuracy, starting from NEVER (0 regularity) and ending in ALWAYS (total regularity):

Never = not ever Hardly ever Seldom Rarely Occasionally Sometimes Frequently Often Usually Normally Mostly Generally Always

0%

50 %

Degree of frequency

100 %

These adverbs of frequency are usually placed in the sentence as if they were negations: after first auxiliary if present, and before principal action. E.g.

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He is often at home Jane and Natalie are always together I am never going to say a lie You usually practice sports Tom rarely spoke to her She will sometimes call me They have occasionally travelled to Africa It seldom gave me any problem Another more precise forms can be used to express frequency, but are placed at the end of the sentence as common adverbs of time: To express number of times for one, two or three use ONCE, TWICE, THRICE, correspondingly. E.g. I study thrice a week (informal usage) I study thrice per week (formal usage) They call ten times a day (informal usage) They call ten times per day (formal usage) Use EVERY, or expressions like HOURLY, DAILY, WEEKLY, MONTHLY, YEARLY, ANNUALLY, to mean with no exception; and EVERY OTHER . To mean on alternating times. E.g. We study every night They celebrate yearly I take my medicine every other day John came here everyday She travels weekly He works at night every other week

EXERCISE: Write 20 sentences using adverbs of frequency

15. CONNECTIONS Connections are words used to connect sentences establishing a specific relationship between them. They must be followed by any kind of protagonist, even if it is the same of the prior sentence. It is necessary to keep a logical sense with tenses used BECAUSE SINCE AS
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REASON

These connections introduce the reason, cause or explanation of the first sentence. E.g. I study because I want to learn He became vegetarian since he got sick Her boss dismissed her as she arrived late everyday

WHEN WHILE

SIMULTANEOUSLY

These connections introduce a sentence carried out simultaneously with the first sentence. E.g. Mrs. Brown was in Rome when she called him I study English while I listen to classic music James will be sleeping when you arrive home They were playing soccer while we were resting

IF AS LONG AS

CONDITION

These connections introduce the condition for accomplishing the first sentence (see conditions 18.3.1.). E.g. Well go if you invite us She sleeps if she is tired Hell get another job as long as he needs to Ill travel to Europe as long as I get the money

ALTHOUGH THOUGH

NOT CONSIDERING

These connections introduce a sentence executed without considering the first sentence in any way. E.g. Elizabeth continues working although shes very tired Hell go out tonight though hes sick You will speak English although you havent gone abroad The car looks clean though they havent washed it
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SO THAT

PURPOSE

This connection introduces the objective of the first sentence. E.g. Im going to write a letter so that you read it You have studied a lot so that you pass the test Parents work so that their children study

SO

CONSEQUENCE

This connection introduces the consequence or result of the first sentence, being the opposite of BECAUSE. E.g. I want to learn so I study She arrived late everyday so her boss dismissed her He got sick so he became vegetarian

BEFORE

PREVIOUSLY

This connection indicates the preceding position in time of the first sentence according to a later sentence. E.g. Jim studies before he sleeps They had come here before you came I have dinner before I go bed

AFTER

POSTERIOR

This connection indicates the later position in time of the first sentence according to a preceding sentence. E.g. He sleeps before Jim studies You came after they had come here I go bed after I have dinner

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Some other connections like basic unions are AND, OR, BUT. It is possible to omit protagonist after them. E.g. Henry works and lives in Boston She likes to watch TV or go to the movies I will do anything but work at night

EXERCISE: Write 2 sentences with each connector seen

16. IMPERATIVES Imperatives are forms to indicate some kind of authority or to ask someone to do something as orders or invitations or to express a prohibition. 16.1. Orders Orders are used to give instructions, advise and ask someone to do something. The protagonist always comes to be YOU, singular or plural; so, it is not mentioned being already understood.

+ () + (PLEASE) (!)
The principal action is given on its pure form without TO and may be followed by a complement, and sometimes, by the expression PLEASE to soften the idea of order. An exclamation mark can be placed at the end. E.g. Do your homework! Do your homework, please! Use sunscreen everyday to avoid skin diseases. Insert disk into drive. Read carefully before open.

EXERCISE: Write 20 common orders

16.2. Negative orders Negative orders are prohibitions to do something, and as seen, the protagonist is supposed.

DONT + + () + (PLEASE) (!)

It may also be softened placing PLEASE. To express negation, the auxiliary form DONT is used preceding the principal action. E.g.
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Dont speak Spanish in class! Dont speak Spanish in class, please! Dont smoke here! Dont smoke here, please!

EXERCISE: Write 20 common negative orders

16.3. Invitations These imperative forms ask someone to do something including the speaker in the action as a group. Here the protagonist comes to be WE, and as understood it is not mentioned.

LETS + + () + (PLEASE) (!)

The particle LET US is used contracted as LETS followed by the principal action and may also be followed by a complement and the expression PLEASE. E.g. Lets do the homework! Lets do the homework, please! Lets have a coffee! Lets go out tonight!

EXERCISE: Write 20 common invitations

17. PASSIVE VOICE Voice refers to the attitude of the protagonist. In all the sentences seen so far, the protagonist acts, performs, or executes the action, is the agent. It is called active voice. When the protagonist does not perform the action, but is affected by it, it is an object either, direct or indirect. It is called passive voice.

Active voice agent performs the action Passive voice object

Direct victim of the action Indirect receives

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Passive voice is very important when emphasising in the object instead of the agent, which may not be present. It is easy to identify, following a special structure:

+ TO BE + P.P. + ()
So, when there is an action on its P.P. form following TO BE, it means it is a passive voice sentence. An active voice sentence may be changed into a passive voice sentence whenever there is any kind of object.

+ + /

/ + TO BE + P.P. + (agent)
Consequently, the protagonist of a passive voice may be either: A direct object: as seen in 10.1., it is something directly affected by the action, the victim of the action, the what or who of the action, acted by the action. The presence of agent is optional. E.g. The cat drinks his milk His milk is drunk by the cat Charles will write a letter A letter will be written by him He broadcast the news from London The news was broadcast from London We are going to read that book in class That book is going to be read in class She has prepared chicken for dinner Chicken has been prepared for dinner They are building that house for us That house is being built for us

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Or, an indirect object: as seen in 10.2., it is something indirectly affected by the action, as receiver of the direct object, which is normally mentioned after the principal action. E.g. They are going to ask me for a lot of documents I am going to be asked for a lot of documents She has sent Charles many letters from England Charles has been sent a lot of letters from England We will give her a present on her birthday She will be given a present on her birthday He teaches us English everyday We are taught English everyday Your parents lent you the car yesterday You were lent the car yesterday The tailor is making me a suit I am being made a suit

EXERCISE: Write 20 passive voice sentences where the protagonist is a direct object and 20 passive sentences where the protagonist is an indirect object

17.1. Alternative structures A passive voice sentence can also be expressed, replacing TO BE by TO GET generally when the protagonist is a direct object expressing damage. E.g. The car was damaged in the accident The car got damaged in the accident He was wounded in the fight He got wounded in the fight You will be bitten by the snake if you disturb it You will get bitten by the snake if you disturb it

EXERCISE: Write 10 passive voice sentences with GET

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18. MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS This kind of actions as auxiliary verbs, help principal action to make questions and negative sentences, but instead of indicating tenses, convey a precise meaning or message.

Modal auxiliary verbs meaning or message

They are: CAN, COULD, MAY, MIGHT, WILL, WOULD SHALL, SHOULD, OUGHT TO, HAD BETTER, MUST, HAVE TO, HAVE GOT TO, BE TO, NEED, DARE, USED TO. Some of them can be contracted for affirmative or negative sentences. The principal action comes after them on its pure form without TO, or on its perfect form. It is highly recommendable not to learn them by their translation but by their function.

18.1. Can could be able to

CAN ability - aptitude

This modal essentially conveys the message of ability. It refers to the protagonist aptitudes or talents. It mostly expresses a simple present. E.g. George can fly an aeroplane She can type fast They can speak English as natives I can play soccer very well Jane can paint wonderful landscapes For negative and interrogative sentences, use CAN as auxiliary as well. When negative, the contractions CANNOT formally or CANT informally, may be used. E.g. George cant fly an aeroplane She cannot type fast They cant speak English as natives I cannot play soccer very well Jane cant paint wonderful landscapes Can George fly an aeroplane? Can She type fast? Can they speak English as natives? Can you play soccer very well? Can Jane paint wonderful landscapes?

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For simple questions short answers, follow rule seen in 7.4.2., in this case use CAN as auxiliary. E.g. Can George fly an aeroplane? Can She type fast? Yes, he can No, he cant Yes, she can No, she cant

As CAN mostly expresses a simple present sentence, when expressing simple past, use COULD instead. E.g. I could play soccer very well Jane could paint wonderful landscapes I couldnt play soccer very well Jane couldnt paint wonderful landscapes Could you play soccer very well? Could Jane paint wonderful landscapes? Yes, I could No, I couldnt Yes, she could No, she couldnt

For other tenses - as future or perfect tenses -, the expression BE ABLE TO must be used. E.g. They will be able to speak English as natives They wont be able to speak English as natives Will they be able to speak English as natives?

Yes, they will No, they wont

They have been able to speak English as natives They havent been able to speak English as natives Have they been able to speak English as natives?

Yes, they have No, they havent

Besides indicating the past form of CAN, COULD also expresses its conditional form in conditional sentences. E.g. We could speak better if we practised more She could drive a car if she learned how to do it Peter could travel to Japan if he desired The modal CAN may be used to show permission in general to do something not depending on speakers permission. E.g.
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We can claim for our rights I can go there if I want You can buy anything you want She can go out tonight Charles can park his car here

EXERCISE: Write 20 sentences using CAN COULD BE ABLE TO

18.2. May might be allowed to

MAY permission - possibility

This modal essentially conveys the message of permission given or received by the speaker. It refers to the protagonist authorisation to do something. It mostly expresses a simple present. E.g. You may go to the restrooms They may enter military facilities She may go to the party He may drive his parents car Christine may miss class today For negative and interrogative sentences, use MAY as auxiliary as well. When negative, there is not contraction, and the form MAY NOT is used. E.g. You may not go to the restrooms They may not enter military facilities She may not go to the party He may not drive his parents car Christine may not miss class today May I go to the restrooms? May they enter military facilities? May she go to the party? May he drive his parents car? May Christine miss class today? For simple questions short answers, follow rule seen in 7.4.2., in this case use MAY as auxiliary. E.g.

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May I go to the restrooms? May they enter military facilities?

Yes, you may No, you may not Yes, they may No, they may not

As MAY mostly expresses a simple future sentence, when expressing simple past, use MIGHT instead. E.g. He might drive his parents car Christine might miss class today He might not drive his parents car Christine might not miss class today Might he drive his parents car? Might Christine miss class today? Yes, he might No, he might not Yes, she might No, she might not

For other tenses - as future or perfect tenses -, the expression BE ALLOWED TO can be used. E.g. She will be allowed to go to the party She wont be allowed to go to the party Will she be allowed to go to the party?

Yes, she will No, she wont

She has been allowed to go to the party She hasnt been allowed to go to the party Has she been allowed to go to the party?

Yes, she has No, she hasnt

Besides indicating the past form of MAY, MIGHT also expresses probability. E.g. We might go to the movies or have dinner Anne might study in USA or UK You might stay or leave

EXERCISE: Write 20 sentences using MAY MIGHT BE ALLOWED TO

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18.3. Will would

WILL volition / desire

As seen in 11.1.3., WILL indicates an action intended to be done in the future, but in an undetermined moment. It actually indicates the intention to do it, volition with no specifying when. For affirmative, negative and interrogative sentences and short answers see 11.1.3.

WOULD potentiality
Technically, WOULD is the past form of WILL; so, it conveys the message of a not executed volition or desire, but still possible, a potential action depending on a condition. As a modal auxiliary verb, it is used for negative and interrogative sentences, and can be contracted WOULDNT for negative, and D for affirmative informal sentences. See usage and examples in 18.3.1.2. 18.3.1. Conditions Conditional sentences refer to imaginary situations depending on a condition, mostly introduced by IF (sometimes with AS LONG AS).

Imaginary situation + IF + Condition

Or,

IF + Condition, + Imaginary situation

When negative conditions, UNLESS can replace IF...NOT. There are three types of conditional forms:

18.3.1.1. Possible imaginary situation When the action is possible, it comes in simple future, but the condition comes in present. E.g. Imaginary situation (future) + IF + Present condition IF + Present condition, + Imaginary situation (future) Shell go if you invite her John and Betty will get married if they love each other If I can, Ill help you If it is raining, hell stay home

EXERCISE: Write 20 possible imaginary situation sentences

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18.3.1.2. Improbable imaginary situation When the action is improbable, it comes preceded by WOULD, but the condition comes in past. E.g. Imaginary situation (WOULD + ) + IF + Past condition IF + Past condition, + Imaginary situation (WOULD + ) Shed go if you invited her John and Betty would get married if they loved each other If I could, Id help you If it were raining, hed stay home See that when TO BE is in past condition, is used as WERE for any protagonist.

EXERCISE: Write 20 improbable imaginary situation sentences

18.3.1.3. Impossible imaginary situation When the action is impossible, it comes on its P.P. form, preceded by WOULD HAVE, but the condition comes in perfect past. E.g. Imaginary situation (WOULD HAVE + P.P. form)+ IF + Past condition IF + Past condition, + Imaginary situation (WOULD HAVE + P.P. form) Shed have gone it you had invited her John and Betty would have got married if they had loved each other If I had been able, Id have helped you If it had been raining, hed have stayed home Besides these three main forms, some others can be made up if needed.

EXERCISE: Write 20 impossible imaginary situation sentences

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18.4. Shall should ought to had better

SHALL determination
This modal essentially conveys the message of determination. It refers to the protagonist promise to do something. For I or WE, it works as WILL, representing indefinite future; and can also be contracted as LL. We shall go for a coffee Arthur shall work better It shall be mine You shall stop speaking Spanish I shall help you For negative and interrogative sentences, use SHALL as auxiliary as well. When negative, the contraction SHANT may be used informally. E.g. We shall not go for a coffee Arthur shant work better It shall not be mine You shant stop speaking Spanish I shall not help you Used in questions with I or WE, expresses a proposal or suggestion. E.g. Shall we go for a coffee? Shall Arthur work better? Shall it be mine? Shall you stop speaking Spanish? Shall I help you? For simple questions short answers, follow rule seen in 7.4.2., in this case use SHALL as auxiliary. E.g. Shall Arthur work better? Shall you stop speaking Spanish? Yes, he shall No, he shant Yes, I shall No, I shant

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SHOULD recommendation
As SHALL mostly expresses a simple future sentence, when expressing simple present or past, use SHOULD instead, indicating so a recommendation to do something. E.g. You should sleep more Charles should have driven today They should travel now She should have talked to him We should do it together For negative and interrogative sentences, use SHOULD as auxiliary as well. When negative, the contraction SHOULDNT may be used informally. E.g. You shouldnt sleep more Charles should not have driven today They shouldnt travel now She should not have talked to him We shouldnt do it together Should you sleep more? Should Charles have driven today? Should they travel now? Should she have talked to him? Should we do it together? For simple questions short answers, follow rule seen in 7.4.2., in this case use SHOULD as auxiliary. E.g. Should you sleep more? Should Charles have driven today? Yes, I should No, I shouldnt Yes, he should No, he shouldnt

Besides SHOULD, the form OUGHT TO also expresses a recommendation. However, it is seldom used for negative or interrogative sentences. It can informally be contracted as OUGHTTA. E.g. You oughtta sleep more Charles ought to have driven today They oughtta travel now She oughtta have talked to him We ought to do it together

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HAD BETTER strong recommendation

This form is similar to SHOULD, although, it is more persuasive as a warning. Despite, the past form of HAVE is used; HAD BETTER must be used for either, present or future. It can be informally contracted as D BETTER. E.g. Youd better sleep more Charles had better drive today Theyd better travel now She had better talk to him Wed better do it together For interrogative sentences, use HAD as auxiliary verb. When negative, NOT is placed after HAD BETTER and there is no contraction. E.g. You had better not sleep more Charles had better not drive today They had better not travel now She had better not talk to him We had better not do it together Had you better sleep more? Had Charles better drive today? Had they better travel now? Had she better talk to him? Had we better do it together? For simple questions short answers, follow rule seen in 7.4.2., in this case use HAD as auxiliary. E.g. Had you better sleep more? Had better Charles have driven today? Yes, I had No, I hadnt Yes, he had No, he hadnt

EXERCISE: Write 20 sentences using SHALL SHOULD OUGHT TO HAD BETTER

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18.5. Must have to have got to be to

MUST desired obligation

This modal conveys the message of obligation to do something, considering it as desired by the speaker. It usually expresses simple present or future, but has no past form. To express past, MUST can be followed by a perfect form action. E.g. Mary must do exercise every morning Tom and Pete must have prepared the lesson I must read more books a year We must have called our friends You must practice everyday For negative and interrogative sentences, use MUST as auxiliary as well. When negative, the contraction MUSTNT is rarely used. This negative form mostly expresses lack of necessity. E.g. Mary must not do exercise every morning Tom and Pete must not have prepared the lesson I must not read more books a year We must not have called our friends You must not practice everyday Must Mary do exercise every morning? Must Tom and Pete have prepared the lesson? Must you read more books a year? Must we have called our friends? Must you practice everyday? For simple questions short answers, follow rule seen in 7.4.2., in this case use MUST as auxiliary. E.g. Must Tom and Pete have prepared the lesson? Must you read more books a year? Yes, they must No, they must not Yes, I must No, I must not

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HAVE (GOT) TO undesired obligation

This expression is not a modal auxiliary verb, but is included here since it conveys the message of obligation to do something, as MUST, but considering it as NOT desired by the speaker, but as forced to do it. Use both HAVE TO, or HAVE GOT TO, considering that: In the first case HAVE acts as the principal action, so, it can not be contracted; and, In the second case HAVE acts as a normal auxiliary verb for perfect tenses and can be contracted as seen, and the part GOT TO, can informally be contracted as GOTTA. Use HAD for past sentences. E.g. Marys gotta do exercise every morning Tom and Pete had to prepare the lesson Ive gotta read more books a year We have to call our friends Youve gotta practice everyday For negative and interrogative sentences, consider that: In the first case HAVE TO is the principal action, so auxiliary verbs should be used; and, In the second case HAVE can be used as the auxiliary since it indicates a perfect tense. E.g. Mary hasnt gotta do exercise every morning Tom and Pete didnt have to prepare the lesson I havent gotta read more books a year We dont have to call our friends You havent gotta practice everyday Has Mary gotta do exercise every morning? Did Tom and Pete have to prepare the lesson? Have I gotta read more books a year? Do we have to call our friends? Have you gotta practice everyday? For simple questions short answers, follow rule seen in 7.4.2., in this case use auxiliaries depending on the case. E.g. Did Tom and Pete have to prepare the lesson? Have I gotta read more books a year? Yes, they did No, they didnt Yes, I have No, I havent

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BE TO strong irrefutable obligation

This modal conveys the message of obligation to do something, considering it as undoubted by the speaker. E.g. Mary is to do exercise every morning Tom and Pete were to prepare the lesson I am to read more books a year We were to call our friends You are to practice everyday For negative and interrogative sentences, use BE as auxiliary as well. When negative, contractions can be used. This negative form mostly expresses prohibition. E.g. Mary is not to do exercise every morning Tom and Pete were not to prepare the lesson I am not to read more books a year We were not to call our friends You are not to practice everyday Is Mary to do exercise every morning? Were Tom and Pete to prepare the lesson? Are you to read more books a year? Were we to call our friends? Are you to practice everyday? For simple questions short answers, follow rule seen in 7.4.2., in this case use BE as auxiliary. E.g. Were Tom and Pete to prepare the lesson? Are you to read more books a year? Yes, they were No, they werent Yes, I am No, I am not

EXERCISE: Write 20 sentences using MUST HAVE (GOT) TO BE TO

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18.6. Need dare used to

NEED necessity
This expression conveys the message of necessity to do something. This form can be used both, as the principal action or as a modal auxiliary verb (only for negative or interrogative sentences). In affirmative sentences must be used as the principal action (taking s for third person protagonists and if followed by another action, TO is used after NEED). E.g. Mr. Johnson needs to attend the meeting tomorrow They need to go home early She needs to test her skills I need to drive to the office everyday Bob needs to eat a lot of fruit For negative and interrogative sentences, NEED can be used as auxiliary, or as principal action accompanied by another auxiliary according to the tense. When negative, the contraction NEEDNT can informally be used. This negative form expresses lack of necessity. E.g. Using NEED as auxiliary: Mr. Johnson need not attend the meeting tomorrow They neednt go home early She need not test her skills I neednt drive to the office everyday Bob need not eat a lot of fruit Need Mr. Johnson attend the meeting tomorrow? Need they go home early? Need she test her skills? Need I drive to the office everyday? Need Bob eat a lot of fruit? Using NEED as principal action: Mr. Johnson doesnt need to attend the meeting tomorrow They dont need to go home early She doesnt need to test her skills I dont need to drive to the office everyday Bob doesnt need to eat a lot of fruit

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Does Mr. Johnson need to attend the meeting tomorrow? Do they need to go home early? Does she need to test her skills? Do I need to drive to the office everyday? Does Bob need to eat a lot of fruit? For simple questions short answers, follow rule seen in 7.4.2., in this case NEED can also be used as auxiliary or as the principal action. E.g. Need they go home early? Does Bob need to eat a lot of fruit? Yes, they need No, they neednt Yes, he does No, he doesnt

DARE challenge
This expression conveys the message of challenge to do something, to have the courage to do an action. This form can be used both, as the principal action or as a modal auxiliary verb (only for negative or interrogative sentences). In affirmative sentences must be used as the principal action (taking s for third person protagonists and if followed by another action, TO is used after DARE). E.g. I dare to walk barefoot She dares to ride a bull They dare to hunt tigers Jim dares to eat bugs You dare to yell at me For negative and interrogative sentences, DARE can be used as auxiliary, or as principal action accompanied by another auxiliary according to the tense. When negative, the contraction DARENT can informally be used. E.g. Using DARE as auxiliary: I darent walk barefoot She darent ride a bull They darent hunt tigers Jim darent eat bugs You darent yell at me Dare you walk barefoot? Dare she ride a bull? Dare they hunt tigers? Dare Jim eat bugs? Dare you yell at me?
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Using DARE as principal action: I dont dare to walk barefoot She doesnt dare to ride a bull They dont dare to hunt tigers Jim doesnt dare to eat bugs You dont dare to yell at me Do you dare to walk barefoot? Does she dare to ride a bull? Do they dare to hunt tigers? Does Jim dare to eat bugs? Do you dare to yell at me? For simple questions short answers, follow rule seen in 7.4.2., in this case DARE can also be used as auxiliary or as the principal action. E.g. Dare you walk barefoot? Do they dare to hunt tigers? Yes, I dare No, I darent Yes, they dont No, they dont

USED TO stopped habit

This expression conveys the message of stopped habit, an action habitually done in the past but not now. This form can be used both, as the principal action or as a modal auxiliary verb (only for negative or interrogative sentences). He used to visit her We used to play soccer Mary used to smoke Sam used to live in Liverpool You used to sleep a lot For negative and interrogative sentences, USED TO can be used as auxiliary, or as principal action accompanied by another auxiliary according to the tense. When negative, there is no contraction. E.g. Using USED TO as auxiliary: He used not to visit her We used not to play soccer Mary used not to smoke Sam used not to live in Liverpool You used not to sleep a lot
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Used he to visit her? Used we to play soccer? Used Mary to smoke? Used Sam to live in Liverpool? Used you to sleep a lot? Using USED TO as principal action: He didnt use to visit her We didnt use to play soccer Mary didnt use to smoke Sam didnt use to live in Liverpool You didnt use to sleep a lot Did He use to visit her? Did we use to play soccer? Did Mary use to smoke? Did Sam use to live in Liverpool? Did you use to sleep a lot?

EXERCISE: Write 20 sentences using NEED DARE USED TO

18.7. Modal auxiliary verbs wh-questions Being auxiliary verbs, modal actions can also be used for Wh-questions; so, there are many possibilities more. Certainly, not all of the modal actions are used with the same frequency, as some of them are more common than the others. E.g. What can he do? He can study more frequently Whom could she ask for information if she needed it? She could ask the teacher Where may you go tonight? I may go nowhere tonight
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When might we see again? We might see again tomorrow What time will the doctor be working? Hell be working at 2 p.m. How long would they be here if they came? Theyd be here for two weeks How shall we do our homework? We shall do it carefully What should it look like? It should look better Whose class had you better attend? Id better attend Mrs. Harris class Why must people sleep? Because we need to rest How old is he to work? Hes to work 25 years old How much water need she drink everyday? She needs to drink 5 litres of water everyday How many hot dogs dare Peter eat at the same time? He dares to eat 20 hot dogs at the same time How often used we to get together? We used occasionally to get together What kind of food did you have to eat when you were sick? I had to eat natural food Which job has he got to apply for? Hes gotta apply for C.E.O. (chief executive officer)

EXERCISE: Write 20 wh-questions using MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS and answer them

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19. COMPOUND PRONOUNS & ADVERBS Many words in English are compound of other known words; so, it is useful to know the mostly used words to create other words like pronouns and adverbs. When expressing quantity, words like NO, ANY, SOME, and EVERY can be used:

NO ANY SOME EVERY

absence unspecified (no exception) unspecified (with exception) total

They can be joined with the following to create more words: ONE / BODY THING WHERE TIME HOW

person object place moment manner

NO ONE NOBODY NOTHING NOWHERE NO TIME NO HOW

absence of person absence of object absence of place absence of moment absence of manner

ANYONE ANYBODY ANYTHING ANYWHERE ANYTIME ANYHOW

unspecified person unspecified object unspecified place unspecified moment unspecified manner No exception

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SOMEONE SOMEBODY SOMETHING SOMEWHERE SOMETIME SOMEHOW

unspecified person unspecified object unspecified place unspecified moment unspecified manner With exception

EVERYONE EVERYBODY EVERYTHING EVERYWHERE EVERY TIME EVERY HOW

totality of persons totality of objects totality of places totality of moments totality of manners

The compound expressions made up with ANY, have equivalent compound expressions made up with wh-expressions added the particle EVER. E.g.

WHOEVER WHATEVER WHICHEVER WHEREVER WHENEVER HOWEVER

ANYONE / ANYBODY ANYTHING

ANYWHERE ANYTIME ANYHOW

Prepositions can be used followed by the particle WARDS to form compound adverbs indicating the direction of a movement.

BACKWARDS FORWARDS DOWNWARDS UPWARDS INWARDS OUTWARDS TOWARDS

reversed direction frontal direction descending direction ascending direction interior direction exterior direction destination direction

EXERCISE: Write 1 sentence with each compound expression seen

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20. QUANTITY Quantity measures the number or amount of something. It expresses the difference between singular and plural of something and when something is an element or a substance. Exact quantity is expressed using numbers, which can be cardinal or ordinal. See NUMBERS table at appendix. In English, decimals are separated with a point (.), thousands with a comma (,), and millions with an apostrophe (). E.g. 23676, 686.67 134.34 NOTE: 134.34 134.34 0 one hundred and thirty-four point three four one hundred thirty-four point three four British American Sports result Phone numbers British American twenty three million six hundred and seventy six thousand six hundred and eighty six point six seven one hundred and thirty-four point three four

Nought Zero Nil O/oU/

Inexact quantity is expressed using expressions as the following ones: QUANTIFIERS -0Incomplete Unspecified Satisfactory Substantial Complete Some (of) Any (of) Enough (of) Most (of) A lot (of) All (of) Elements and substances No None (of) elements substances

Few (of) Several (of)

Little (of) a bit (of)

Many (of) Every (one of) Each (of)

Much (of) A great deal (of)

NOTE: Using the quantifiers FEW and LITTLE, gives a negative sense (not many, not much); but using the article A FEW and A LITTLE, gives an affirmative sense (some). E.g.
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I bought few books (not many books) I bought a few books (some books) She sleeps little (not much) She sleeps a little (some)

EXERCISE: Write 20 numbers in figures and letters and 20 sentences using quantifiers

20.1. Any some no The expression ANY can be used for negative, affirmative and interrogative sentences but varying its meaning.

ANY (affirmative sentence) = uncertain something with no exception

In affirmative sentences it expresses a sense of an uncertain something with no exception. It can be used preceding something working as a description or in compound pronouns and adverbs. E.g. I want anything to eat She likes any suspense book John eats any kind of meat

ANY (negative sentence) = Absence of something (NO)

In negative sentences, it expresses a sense of absence of quantity (NO). E.g. I dont want anything to eat She doesnt like any suspense book John doesnt eat any kind of meat Not + ANY (negative sentence) = NO (affirmative sentence) This structure can also be expressed in affirmative sentences but using NO instead of ANY. E.g. I want nothing to eat She likes no suspense book John eats no kind of meat Other expressions besides NO can be used to express absence: Absence = no, neither (description), none (pronoun)

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She likes neither suspense book She likes none John eats neither kind of meat John eats none This is possible because in English, a negative sentence normally contains only one negative word; so, this logic may vary from other languages like Spanish where a sentence with a double negation is commonly used. As in affirmative sentences, ANY and NO can be used preceding something working as a description or in compound pronouns and adverbs.

ANY (interrogative sentence) = SOME

In interrogative sentences, ANY expresses the same sense of SOME in affirmative sentences. SOME is rarely used in interrogative sentences since it suggests an affirmative answer; so, it is used to compel acceptance like in invitations. E.g. Do you want something to eat? Yes, I do, thanks Does she like some suspense book? Yes, she does. She prefers that Agatha Christies one Does John eat some kind of meat? Yes, he does. He loves pork ANY in interrogative sentences does not suggest a specific affirmative or negative answer. E.g. Do you want anything to eat? Yes, I do No, I dont Does she like any terror book? Yes, she does No, she doesnt Does John eat any kind of meat? Yes, he does No, he doesnt

EXERCISE: Write 20 negative sentences with ANY NO

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21. HAVE HAVE is one of the mostly used actions in English and its meaning may change depending on what follows it:

21.1. Have possession Principally, HAVE expresses the sense of POSSESSION on something. Certainly, to do so, it is necessary to mention something after the action HAVE. E.g.

HAVE + something = POSSESSION

I will have a car She had a house They have friends He has a suit In British English, the expression HAVE GOT is used instead of only HAVE for possession. E.g. I will have got a car Shed got a house Theyve got friends Hes got a suit

EXERCISE: Write 20 sentences using HAVE for possession

21.2. Have completed action However, as seen in perfect tenses, HAVE, can also be used as an auxiliary verb for affirmative, negative and interrogative sentences expressing a specific tense, and meaning that the principal action is completed. So, it needs to be followed by an action on its past participle P.P. form. E.g.

HAVE + P.P. form = PERFECT TENSES

I will have washed a car She had cleaned a house They have invited their friends He has made a suit This is the only case where HAVE can be used as auxiliary for negative and interrogative sentences. E.g.
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She hadnt cleaned a house They havent invited their friends He hasnt made a suit Had she cleaned a house? Have they invited their friends? Has he made a suit? Yes, she had No, she hadnt Yes, they have No, they havent Yes, he has No, he hasnt

EXERCISE: Write 20 sentences using HAVE for perfect tenses

21.3. Have obligation HAVE as principal action may also convey the idea of obligation, as the modal auxiliary verb MUST*. In this case, HAVE must be followed by another action preceded by TO. E.g.

HAVE + TO = OBLIGATION
I will have to wash a car She had to clean a house They have to invite their friends He has to make a suit As seen here, when HAVE means obligation, it is the principal action, and different from MUST it can be used in any tense but cannot be used as auxiliary for negative and interrogative sentences where an auxiliary has to be used. E.g. I wont have to wash a car She didnt have to clean a house They dont have to invite their friends He doesnt have to make a suit Will you have to wash the car? Did she have to clean a house? Do they have to invite their friends? Does he have to make a suit? Yes, I will No, I wont Yes, she did No, she didnt Yes, they have No, they havent Yes, he has No, he hasnt

EXERCISE: Write 20 sentences using HAVE for obligation

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21.4. Have causative HAVE is also used to indicate that an action is caused by someone. In both cases: to cause someone to do something, or to cause something to be done, HAVE is used followed by something or its pronoun and another action. 21.4.1. To cause someone to do something

+ HAVE + something + pure form

pronoun
In this case HAVE needs to be followed by the AGENT is supposed to do the action, and then the action on its pure form without to. E.g. I will have john wash the car She had her clean the house They have me invite their friends He has Mary make a suit Actions like MAKE and GET...TO can also be used to express this causative form. E.g. I will make john wash the car She made her clean the house They make me invite their friends He makes Mary make a suit I will get john to wash the car She got her to clean the house They get me to invite their friends He gets Mary to make a suit

something pronoun

EXERCISE: Write 20 sentences causing someone to do something

21.4.2. To cause something to be done

+ HAVE +

something + P.P. pronoun

In this case, HAVE needs to be followed by the OBJECT is supposed to be affected by the action (compare with passive voice*), and then the action on its P.P. form. E.g. I will have the car washed She had the house cleaned They have their friends invited He has a suit made

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GET can also be used to express this causative form. E.g. I will get the car washed She got the house cleaned They get their friends invited He gets a suit made

EXERCISE: Write 20 sentences causing something to be done

22. CONTRACTED SENTENCES In some cases, sentences are contracted to avoid useless repetitions and to ensure precision for the expression:

22.1. Contracted affirmative sentences When two affirmative sentences express the same action, tense, and complement, but with different protagonist, the second sentence can be contracted in two ways:

Affirmative sentence + AND + + aux. + TOO Affirmative sentence + AND + SO + aux. +

E.g. She reads a lot of books a year and he does too She reads a lot of books a year and so does he They are going to eat at that restaurant and John is too They are going to eat at that restaurant and so is John

EXERCISE: Write 20 contracted affirmative sentences using TOO and SO

22.2. Contracted negative sentences When two negative sentences express the same action, tense, and complement, but with different protagonist, the second sentence can be contracted in two ways:

Negative sentence + AND + + aux. + NOT + EITHER Negative sentence + AND + NEITHER + aux. +
E.g.
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Anne wont come today and they wont either Anne wont come today and neither will they She shouldnt eat so much and you shouldnt either She shouldnt eat so much and neither should you

EXERCISE: Write 20 contracted negative sentences using EITHER and NEITHER

22.3. Contracted contrasting sentences When two contrasting (opposite) sentences express the same action, tense, and complement, but with different protagonist, the second sentence can be contracted in two ways:

Affirmative sentence + BUT + + aux. + NOT Negative sentence + BUT + + aux.

E.g. I have finished my homework but they havent They havent finish their homework but I have My parents are not sleeping now but my sister is My sister is sleeping now but they arent

EXERCISE: Write 20 contracted contrasting sentences

23. REPORTED SPEECH Mostly in literature, someone usually expresses what another person said or asked taking the same words in the same order and tense into quotation marks. This is called DIRECT SPEECH. E.g. Mary says: I can do it My mother tells me: I will visit you on Sunday They ask their father: Can you help us? The teacher asks him: Do you speak English? They ask her: How much are you going to pay? I ask: What time is it? His boss tells him: Come in, please! Peter tells us: Dont miss class!

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However, in normal conversation or writing, this form is not used. It is preferable to express what another person said or asked with the reporter own words. This is called REPORTED SPEECH.

EXERCISE: Write 20 DIRECT SPEECH sentences

23.1. Reporting sentences When someone said a sentence, the connector THAT can either be used or omitted to report that sentence whose tense and protagonist must fit logically. E.g. Mary said (that) she could do it My mother told me (that) she would visit me on Sunday

EXERCISE: Write 20 sentences reporting sentences

23.2. Reporting simple questions When someone asked a simple question, the connector IF is used followed by the question changed into a common sentence whose tense and protagonist must fit logically. E.g. They asked their father if he could help them The teacher asked him if he spoke English

EXERCISE: Write 20 sentences reporting simple questions

23.3. Reporting wh-questions When someone asked a wh-question, the wh-expression is used as the connector followed by the rest of the question changed into a common sentence whose tense and protagonist must fit logically. E.g. They asked her how much she was going to pay I asked what time it was

EXERCISE: Write 20 sentences reporting wh-questions

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23.4. Reporting commands When someone said a command, it must be placed on its pure affirmative or negative form (with TO or NOT TO) after the first sentence. E.g. His boss told him to come in Peter told us not to miss class

EXERCISE: Write 20 sentences reporting commands

24. QUESTION TAGS This is a special form used to confirm a sentence. It is made of an auxiliary verb followed by the protagonist pronoun on a simple question form and on the contrary sense of the original sentence: If the original sentence is affirmative, the question tag is negative. E.g. She is Jane, isnt she? Im going with you, arent I? (see usage of ARE in this case) Theyll come tomorrow, wont they? We should study more, shouldnt we? If the original sentence is negative, the question tag is affirmative. E.g. You havent travelled to Australia, have you? Mark didnt call you, did he? Your little brother cant swim, can he? Angie wouldnt do it, would she?

EXERCISE: Write 20 usual sentences with question tags

25. TWO WORDS ACTIONS There are many English actions made up followed by a preposition (connector), not only to connect with an object but also to modify their meaning. They are called two words actions.

action + preposition
Can be divided in two kinds: Phrasal and prepositional actions.

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25.1. Phrasal actions In Phrasal actions the preposition has nothing to do with object, it just serves to modify the action meaning.

PHRASAL ACTIONS preposition modifies meaning

When object is an objective pronoun it must be placed between the action and the preposition. E.g. The teacher looked over my exam The teacher looked it over He puts away his clothes He puts them away The doctor is checking out Liz The doctor is checking her out Turn on the radio! Turn it on!

EXERCISE: Write 20 sentences with PHRASAL ACTIONS

25.2. Prepositional actions In Prepositional actions the preposition has all to do with object, connecting the action with its object; so, it changes movement actions (non-objective) into objective actions.

PREPOSITIONAL ACTIONS preposition connects with object

When object is an objective pronoun it cannot be placed between the action and the preposition. E.g. He runs after Edward He runs after him I am looking for a job I am looking for it They laughed at those people They laughed at them

EXERCISE: Write 20 sentences with PREPOSITIONAL actions

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26. APPENDIX 26.1. Date & time 23.03.2000 The twenty-third of March of two thousand 03.23.2000 March twenty-third of two thousand

British

American

Names of days and months are always written in capital letters Years 1903 Nineteen O three 1982 Nineteen eighty two 2005 Two thousand five or twenty O five Hour 9:00 Its nine oclock 9:05 Its five past nine 9:10 Its ten past nine 9:15 Its a quarter past nine 9:30 Its half past nine 9:45 Its a quarter to ten 9:50 Its ten to ten 9:55 Its five to ten or Its just five minutes left to ten 26.2. Differences between British and American orthography British orthography Colour Theatre Defence Organisation Catalogue Programme Dialogue Kidnapped Sceptical Grey American orthography Color Theater Defense Organization Catalog Program Dialog Kidnaped Skeptical Gray

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26.3. Differences between British and American pronunciation

British pronunciation Irregular - strong Dictionary /dknrI/ 1 stress Dollar /dl/ not /not/ o Cat /kaat/ dance /daans/ aa Tuesday /tiusdI/ Student /stiudnt/ iu Missile /msaIl/ aIl
26.4. Numbers table NUMBERS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 30 40 50 60 70
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American pronunciation Monotone soft /dknrI/ 2 stresses /dlr/ /nat/ a /kt/ /dns/ /tusdI/ /studnt/ u /msIl/ Il

CARDINAL One Two Three Four Five Six Seven Eight Nine Ten Eleven Twelve Thirteen Fourteen Fifteen Sixteen Seventeen Eighteen Nineteen Twenty Twenty-one Twenty-two Twenty-three Twenty-four Twenty-five Thirty Forty Fifty Sixty Seventy

ORDINAL First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth Seventh Eighth Ninth Tenth Eleventh Twelfth Thirteenth Fourteenth Fifteenth Sixteenth Seventeenth Eighteenth Nineteenth Twentieth Twenty-first Twenty-second Twenty-third Twenty-fourth Twenty-fifth Thirtieth Fortieth Fiftieth Sixtieth Seventieth

80 90 100 1000 1000000

Eighty Ninety One hundred One thousand One million

Eightieth Ninetieth One hundredth One thousandth One millionth

26.5. Irregular verbs Base Form Abide Arise Awake Be Bear Beat Become Befall Beget Begin Behold Bend Bereave Beseech Beset Bet Betake Bethink Bid Bind Bite Bleed Blow Break Breed Bring Broadcast Browbeat Build Burn Burst
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Past Simple Abode/Abided Arose Awoke Was/Were Bore Beat Became Befell Begot/Begat Began Beheld Bent Bereft Besought Beset Bet Betook Bethought Bid Bound Bit Bled Blew Broke Bred Brought Broadcast/Broadcasted Browbeat Built Burnt/Burned Burst

Past Participle Abode/Abided/Abidden Arisen Awoken Been Born/Borne Beaten Become Befallen Begotten Begun Beheld Bent Bereft/Bereaved Besought Beset Bet Betaken Bethought Bid Bound Bitten Bled Blown Broken Bred Brought Broadcast/Broadcasted Browbeat/Browbeaten Built Burnt/Burned Burst
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Bust Buy Cast Catch Chide Choose Cling Clothe Come Cost Creep Cut Dare Deal Dig Dive Do Draw Dream Drink Drive Dwell Eat Fall Feed Feel Fight Find Fit Flee Fling Fly Forbear Forbid Forecast Forego Foreknow Forerun Foresee Foretell
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Bust Bought Cast Caught Chid Chose Clung Clad/Clothed Came Cost Crept Cut Dared/Durst Dealt Dug Dived/Dove Did Drew Dreamt/Dreamed Drank Drove Dwelt Ate Fell Fed Felt Fought Found Fit/Fitted Fled Flung Flew Forbore Forbade/Forbad Forecast/Forecasted Forewent Foreknew Foreran Foresaw Foretold

Bust Bought Cast Caught Chidden/Chid Chosen Clung Clad/Clothed Come Cost Crept Cut Dared Dealt Dug Dived Done Drawn Dreamt/Dreamed Drunk Driven Dwelt Eaten Fallen Fed Felt Fought Found Fit/Fitted Fled Flung Flown Forborne Forbidden Forecast/Forecasted Foregone Foreknown Forerun Foreseen Foretold

Forget Forgive Forsake Forswear Freeze Gainsay Get Gild Give Go Grind Grow Hamstring Hang Have Hear Heave Hew Hide Hit Hold Hurt Inbreed Inlay Input Interbreed Interweave Keep Kneel Knit Know Lade Lay Lead Lean Leap Learn Leave Lend
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Forgot Forgave Forsook Forswore Froze Gainsaid Got Gilded/Gilt Gave Went Ground Grew Hamstrung/Hamstringed Hung/Hanged Had Heard Heaved/Hove Hewed Hid Hit Held Hurt Inbred Inlaid Input/Inputted Interbred Interwove Kept Kneeled/Knelt Knitted/Knit Knew Laded Laid Led Leaned/Leant Leaped/Leapt Learnt/Learned Left Lent

Forgotten Forgiven Forsaken Forsworn Frozen Gainsaid Got Gilded/Gilt Given Gone/Been Ground Grown Hamstrung/Hamstringed Hung/Hanged Had Heard Heaved/Hove Hewn Hidden Hit Held Hurt Inbred Inlaid Input/Inputted Interbred Interwoven Kept Kneeled/Knelt Knitted/Knit Known Laden/Laded Laid Led Leaned/Leant Leaped/Leapt Learnt/Learned Left Lent
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Let Lie Light Lose Make Mean Meet Melt Miscast Misdeal Misgive Mishear Mislay Mislead Misread Misspell Misspend Mistake Misunderstand Mow Outbid Outdo Outgrow Outride Outrun Outsell Outshine Overbear Overcome Overdo Overeat Overhang Overhear Overlay Overleap Overpay Override Overrun Oversee Oversell Overshoot

Let Lay Lit Lost Made Meant Met Melted Miscast Misdealt Misgave Misheard Mislaid Misled Misread Misspelt Misspent Mistook Misunderstood Mowed Outbid Outdid Outgrew Outrode Outran Outsold Outshone Overbore Overcame Overdid Overate Overhung Overheard Overlaid Overleapt/Overleaped Overpaid Overrode Overran Oversaw Oversold Overshot

Let Lain Lit Lost Made Meant Met Melted/Molten Miscast Misdealt Misgiven Misheard Mislaid Misled Misread Misspelt Misspent Mistaken Misunderstood Mown Outbid Outdone Outgrown Outridden Outrun Outsold Outshone Overborne Overcome Overdone Overeaten Overhung Overheard Overlaid Overleapt/Overleaped Overpaid Overridden Overridden Overseen Oversold Overshot

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Oversleep Overtake Overthrow Partake Pay Plead Preset Prove Proofread Put Quit Read Rebind Rebuild Recast Redo Relay Remake Rend Repay Rerun Resell Reset Retell Rethink Rewind Rewrite Rid Ride Ring Rise Rive Run Saw Say See Seek Sell Send Set
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Overslept Overtook Overthrew Partook Paid Pleaded/Pled Preset Proved Proofread Put Quit Read Rebound Rebuilt Recast Redid Relaid Remade Rent Repaid Reran Resold Reset Retold Rethought Rewound Rewrote Rid/Ridded Rode Rang Rose Rived Ran Sawed Said Saw Sought Sold Sent Set

Overslept Overtaken Overthrown Partaken Paid Pleaded/Pled Preset Proved/Proven Proofread Put Quit Read Rebound Rebuilt Recast Redone Relaid Remade Rent Repaid Rerun Resold Reset Retold Rethought Rewound Rewritten Rid/Ridded Ridden Rung Risen Riven/Rived Run Sawed/Sawn Said Seen Sought Sold Sent Set
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Sew Shake Shave Shear Shed Shine Shit Shoe Shoot Show Shrink Shrive Shut Sing Sink Sit Slay Sleep Slide Sling Slink Slit Smell Smite Sow Speak Speed Spell Spend Spill Spin Spit Split Spoil Spoonfeed Spread Spring Stand Stave Steal Stick
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Sewed Shook Shaved Sheared/Shore Shed Shone Shit/Shat Shod Shot Showed Shrank Shrove Shut Sang Sank Sat Slew Slept Slid Slung Slunk Slit Smelt/Smelled Smote Sowed Spoke Sped Spelt Spent Spilt Spun/Span Spat Split Spoiled/Spoilt Spoonfed Spread Sprang Stood Stove/Staved Stole Stuck

Sewed/Sewn Shaken Shaved/Shaven Sheared/Shorn Shed Shone Shit/Shat Shod Shot Shown Shrunk Shriven Shut Sung Sunk Sat Slain Slept Slid/Slidden Slung Slunk Slit Smelt/Smelled Smitten Sown Spoken Sped Spelt Spent Spilt Spun Spat Split Spoiled/Spoilt Spoonfed Spread Sprung Stood Stove/Staved Stolen Stuck

Sting Stink Strew Stride Strike String Strive Sunburn Swear Sweep Swell Swim Swing Take Teach Tear Tell Think Thrive Throw Thrust Tread Unbend Unbind Underbid Undergo Underlie Understand Undertake Underwrite Undo Unwind Uphold Upset Wake Waylay Wear Weave Wed Weep
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Stung Stank Strewed Strode/Strided Struck Strung Strove Sunburned/Sunburnt Swore Swept/Sweeped Swelled Swam Swung Took Taught Tore Told Thought Thrived/Throve Threw Thrust Trod Unbent Unbound Underbid Underwent Underlay Understood Undertook Underwrote Undid Unwound Upheld Upset Woke Waylaid Wore Wove Wedded/Wed Wept

Stung Stunk Strewed/Strewn Stridden Struck/Stricken Strung Striven Sunburned/Sunburnt Sworn Swept/Sweeped Swollen Swum Swung Taken Taught Torn Told Thought Thrived/Thriven Thrown Thrust Trodden Unbent Unbound Underbid/Underbidden Undergone Underlain Understood Undertaken Underwritten Undone Unwound Upheld Upset Woken Waylaid Worn Woven Wedded/Wed Wept
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Wet Win Wind Withdraw Withhold Withstand Wreak Wring Write

Wetted/Wet Won Wound Withdrew Withheld Withstood Wrought Wrung Wrote

Wetted/Wet Won Wound Withdrawn Withheld Withstood Wrought Wrung Written

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