At chemical synapses, synaptic vesicles release their acidic contents into the cleft leading to t... more At chemical synapses, synaptic vesicles release their acidic contents into the cleft leading to the expectation that the cleft should acidify. However, fluorescent pH probes targeted to the cleft of conventional glutamatergic synapses in both fruit flies and mice reveal cleft alkalinization, rather than acidification. Here, using a reaction-diffusion scheme, we modeled pH dynamics at the Drosophila neuromuscular junction (NMJ) as glutamate, adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and protons (H+) are released into the cleft. The model incorporates bicarbonate and phosphate buffering systems as well as plasma membrane calcium-ATPase (PMCA) activity and predicts substantial cleft acidification but only for fractions of a millisecond following neurotransmitter release. Thereafter, the cleft rapidly alkalinizes and remains alkaline for over 100 milliseconds, as the PMCA removes H+ from the cleft in exchange for calcium ions (Ca2+) from adjacent pre- and post-synaptic compartments; thus recapitulat...
At chemical synapses, synaptic vesicles release their acidic contents into the cleft leading to t... more At chemical synapses, synaptic vesicles release their acidic contents into the cleft leading to the expectation that the cleft should acidify. However, fluorescent pH probes targeted to the cleft of conventional glutamatergic synapses in both fruit flies and mice reveal cleft alkalinization, rather than acidification. Here, using a reaction-diffusion scheme, we modeled pH dynamics at the Drosophila neuromuscular junction (NMJ) as glutamate, adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and protons (H+) are released into the cleft. The model incorporates bicarbonate and phosphate buffering systems as well as plasma membrane calcium-ATPase (PMCA) activity and predicts substantial cleft acidification but only for fractions of a millisecond following neurotransmitter release. Thereafter, the cleft rapidly alkalinizes and remains alkaline for over 100 milliseconds, as the PMCA removes H+ from the cleft in exchange for calcium ions (Ca2+) from adjacent pre- and postsynaptic compartments; thus recapitulating the empirical data. The extent of synaptic vesicle loading and time course of exocytosis has little influence on the magnitude of acidification. Phosphate, but not bicarbonate buffering is effective at suppressing the magnitude and time course of the acid spike, while both buffering systems are effective at suppressing cleft alkalinization. The small volume of the cleft levies a powerful influence on the magnitude of alkalinization and its time course. Structural features that open the cleft to adjacent spaces appear to be essential for alleviating the extent of pH transients accompanying neurotransmission.
The dogma that the synaptic cleft acidifies during neurotransmission is based on the corelease of... more The dogma that the synaptic cleft acidifies during neurotransmission is based on the corelease of neurotransmitters and protons from synaptic vesicles, and is supported by direct data from sensory ribbon-type synapses. However, it is unclear whether acidification occurs at non–ribbon-type synapses. Here we used genetically encoded fluorescent pH indicators to examine cleft pH at conventional neuronal synapses. At the neuromuscular junction of femaleDrosophilalarvae, we observed alkaline spikes of over 1 log unit during fictive locomotionin vivo. Ex vivo, single action potentials evoked alkalinizing pH transients of only ∼0.01 log unit, but these transients summated rapidly during burst firing. A chemical pH indicator targeted to the cleft corroborated these findings. Cleft pH transients were dependent on Ca2+movement across the postsynaptic membrane, rather than neurotransmitter release per se, a result consistent with cleft alkalinization being driven by the Ca2+/H+antiporting acti...
Rewiring of synaptic circuitry pertinent to memory formation has been associated with morphologic... more Rewiring of synaptic circuitry pertinent to memory formation has been associated with morphological changes in dendritic spines and with extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling. Here, we mechanistically link these processes by uncovering a signaling pathway involving the serotonin 5-HT7 receptor (5-HT7R), matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9), the hyaluronan receptor CD44, and the small GTPase Cdc42. We highlight a physical interaction between 5-HT7R and CD44 (identified as an MMP-9 substrate in neurons) and find that 5-HT7R stimulation increases local MMP-9 activity, triggering dendritic spine remodeling, synaptic pruning, and impairment of long-term potentiation (LTP). The underlying molecular machinery involves 5-HT7R-mediated activation of MMP-9, which leads to CD44 cleavage followed by Cdc42 activation. One important physiological consequence of this interaction includes an increase in neuronal outgrowth and elongation of dendritic spines, which might have a positive effect on compl...
Neurotransmission is a tightly regulated Ca2+-dependent process. Upon Ca2+ influx, Synaptotagmin1... more Neurotransmission is a tightly regulated Ca2+-dependent process. Upon Ca2+ influx, Synaptotagmin1 (Syt1) promotes fusion of synaptic vesicles (SVs) with the plasma membrane. This requires regulation at multiple levels, but the role of metabolites in SV release is unclear. Here, we uncover a role for isocitrate dehydrogenase 3a (idh3a), a Krebs cycle enzyme, in neurotransmission. Loss of idh3a leads to a reduction of the metabolite, alpha-ketoglutarate (αKG), causing defects in synaptic transmission similar to the loss of syt1. Supplementing idh3a flies with αKG suppresses these defects through an ATP or neurotransmitter-independent mechanism. Indeed, αKG, but not glutamate, enhances Syt1-dependent fusion in a reconstitution assay. αKG promotes interaction between the C2-domains of Syt1 and phospholipids. The data reveal conserved metabolic regulation of synaptic transmission via αKG. Our studies provide a synaptic role for αKG, a metabolite that has been proposed as a treatment for ...
At chemical synapses, synaptic vesicles release their acidic contents into the cleft leading to t... more At chemical synapses, synaptic vesicles release their acidic contents into the cleft leading to the expectation that the cleft should acidify. However, fluorescent pH probes targeted to the cleft of conventional glutamatergic synapses in both fruit flies and mice reveal cleft alkalinization, rather than acidification. Here, using a reaction-diffusion scheme, we modeled pH dynamics at the Drosophila neuromuscular junction (NMJ) as glutamate, adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and protons (H+) are released into the cleft. The model incorporates bicarbonate and phosphate buffering systems as well as plasma membrane calcium-ATPase (PMCA) activity and predicts substantial cleft acidification but only for fractions of a millisecond following neurotransmitter release. Thereafter, the cleft rapidly alkalinizes and remains alkaline for over 100 milliseconds, as the PMCA removes H+ from the cleft in exchange for calcium ions (Ca2+) from adjacent pre- and post-synaptic compartments; thus recapitulat...
At chemical synapses, synaptic vesicles release their acidic contents into the cleft leading to t... more At chemical synapses, synaptic vesicles release their acidic contents into the cleft leading to the expectation that the cleft should acidify. However, fluorescent pH probes targeted to the cleft of conventional glutamatergic synapses in both fruit flies and mice reveal cleft alkalinization, rather than acidification. Here, using a reaction-diffusion scheme, we modeled pH dynamics at the Drosophila neuromuscular junction (NMJ) as glutamate, adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and protons (H+) are released into the cleft. The model incorporates bicarbonate and phosphate buffering systems as well as plasma membrane calcium-ATPase (PMCA) activity and predicts substantial cleft acidification but only for fractions of a millisecond following neurotransmitter release. Thereafter, the cleft rapidly alkalinizes and remains alkaline for over 100 milliseconds, as the PMCA removes H+ from the cleft in exchange for calcium ions (Ca2+) from adjacent pre- and postsynaptic compartments; thus recapitulating the empirical data. The extent of synaptic vesicle loading and time course of exocytosis has little influence on the magnitude of acidification. Phosphate, but not bicarbonate buffering is effective at suppressing the magnitude and time course of the acid spike, while both buffering systems are effective at suppressing cleft alkalinization. The small volume of the cleft levies a powerful influence on the magnitude of alkalinization and its time course. Structural features that open the cleft to adjacent spaces appear to be essential for alleviating the extent of pH transients accompanying neurotransmission.
The dogma that the synaptic cleft acidifies during neurotransmission is based on the corelease of... more The dogma that the synaptic cleft acidifies during neurotransmission is based on the corelease of neurotransmitters and protons from synaptic vesicles, and is supported by direct data from sensory ribbon-type synapses. However, it is unclear whether acidification occurs at non–ribbon-type synapses. Here we used genetically encoded fluorescent pH indicators to examine cleft pH at conventional neuronal synapses. At the neuromuscular junction of femaleDrosophilalarvae, we observed alkaline spikes of over 1 log unit during fictive locomotionin vivo. Ex vivo, single action potentials evoked alkalinizing pH transients of only ∼0.01 log unit, but these transients summated rapidly during burst firing. A chemical pH indicator targeted to the cleft corroborated these findings. Cleft pH transients were dependent on Ca2+movement across the postsynaptic membrane, rather than neurotransmitter release per se, a result consistent with cleft alkalinization being driven by the Ca2+/H+antiporting acti...
Rewiring of synaptic circuitry pertinent to memory formation has been associated with morphologic... more Rewiring of synaptic circuitry pertinent to memory formation has been associated with morphological changes in dendritic spines and with extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling. Here, we mechanistically link these processes by uncovering a signaling pathway involving the serotonin 5-HT7 receptor (5-HT7R), matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9), the hyaluronan receptor CD44, and the small GTPase Cdc42. We highlight a physical interaction between 5-HT7R and CD44 (identified as an MMP-9 substrate in neurons) and find that 5-HT7R stimulation increases local MMP-9 activity, triggering dendritic spine remodeling, synaptic pruning, and impairment of long-term potentiation (LTP). The underlying molecular machinery involves 5-HT7R-mediated activation of MMP-9, which leads to CD44 cleavage followed by Cdc42 activation. One important physiological consequence of this interaction includes an increase in neuronal outgrowth and elongation of dendritic spines, which might have a positive effect on compl...
Neurotransmission is a tightly regulated Ca2+-dependent process. Upon Ca2+ influx, Synaptotagmin1... more Neurotransmission is a tightly regulated Ca2+-dependent process. Upon Ca2+ influx, Synaptotagmin1 (Syt1) promotes fusion of synaptic vesicles (SVs) with the plasma membrane. This requires regulation at multiple levels, but the role of metabolites in SV release is unclear. Here, we uncover a role for isocitrate dehydrogenase 3a (idh3a), a Krebs cycle enzyme, in neurotransmission. Loss of idh3a leads to a reduction of the metabolite, alpha-ketoglutarate (αKG), causing defects in synaptic transmission similar to the loss of syt1. Supplementing idh3a flies with αKG suppresses these defects through an ATP or neurotransmitter-independent mechanism. Indeed, αKG, but not glutamate, enhances Syt1-dependent fusion in a reconstitution assay. αKG promotes interaction between the C2-domains of Syt1 and phospholipids. The data reveal conserved metabolic regulation of synaptic transmission via αKG. Our studies provide a synaptic role for αKG, a metabolite that has been proposed as a treatment for ...
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